In Western European art XVII-XVIII centuries the main artistic trends and trends were baroque and classicism. Academies of arts and architecture were created in many European countries. But none of these styles existed in the art of England in the 17th-18th centuries. in its purest form, because they came to English soil much later than to other countries.
English art of this period is characterized by attention to the emotional life of people, especially portraiture. In addition, the English Enlightenment paid special attention to the ideas of the moral education of the individual, the problems of ethics and morality. Another leading genre of English painting of this period was the everyday genre. We told about the most famous artists (T. Gainsborough, D. Reynolds, W. Hogarth) on our website.
Architecture
In the 17th and 18th centuries England was one of the largest centers of European architecture. But different architectural styles and trends sometimes existed here at the same time.
At the origins of the British architectural tradition stood Inigo Jones(1573-1652), English architect, designer and artist.
Posthumous portrait of Inigo Jones by William Hogarth (painted from a lifetime portrait of Van Dyck)
Inigo Jones was born in 1573 in London in the family of a clothier. In 1603-1605. Jones studied drawing and decorative arts in Italy. Returning to his homeland, he was engaged in the creation of scenery for theatrical performances, he played a significant role in the development of the European theater.
In 1613-1615. Jones is back in Italy, studying the work of Andrea Palladio, antique and renaissance architecture. In 1615, Jones became the chief caretaker of the royal buildings, in Greenwich he soon began building the country mansion of Queen Anne, wife of James I.
queens house
The two-story Queens House is a monolithic cube, completely white and almost without architectural decorations. There is a loggia in the center of the park facade. Queens House was the first English building in the style of classicism.
Tulip Staircase of Queens House, Greenwich
The next work of the architect is the Banqueting House in London (1619-1622). Its two-storey facade is almost entirely covered with architectural decoration. In the interior, a two-tiered colonnade reproduces the appearance of an ancient temple. Jones' buildings suited the tastes of the English court of the time. But Jones' work was appreciated only in the 18th century: it was rediscovered by Palladio fans, and his works became models for the buildings of English Palladianism.
Banqueting house
At the end of the XVI-beginning of the XVII centuries. theatrical performances (“masks”) played an important role in the history of the palace. Particularly famous were the sets and costumes created by Inigo Jones, a talented theater designer.
The banqueting house is 34 meters long, 17 meters wide and the same height. Above the high base rise two floors. Wide windows are rhythmically arranged along the facade. The center of the building is highlighted by 8 Ionic columns in the bottom row, Corinthian - in the top. A frieze in the form of garlands carved in stone was created above the windows of the upper floor. An elegant balustrade completes the whole composition. The only hall of this building was decorated by Rubens.
At the end of the XIX century. The building housed an exposition of the military history museum.
A new stage in the history of English architecture began in the second half of the 17th century, when the first buildings appeared. Sir Christopher Wren(1632-1723), one of the most famous and revered English architects.
Gottfried Kneller "Portrait of Christopher Wren" (1711)
Sir Christopher Wren, an architect and mathematician, rebuilt the center of London after the great fire of 1666. He created the national style of English architecture, Wren's classicism.
Wren was a scientist, studied mathematics and astronomy, turned to architecture when he was already over thirty. Over the course of a long and fruitful activity, he managed to realize almost all of his ideas. He built palaces and temples, libraries and theaters, hospitals and town halls, equipped the residential areas of London. Put together, Wren's many buildings would have made a medium-sized city. After the "great fire" of 1666, Wren took an active part in the restoration of London: he rebuilt over 50 of the 87 burned churches. The grandiose and majestic Cathedral of St. Paul, which has become the greatest religious building of the Protestant world.
Situated on the banks of the Thames, the Royal Hospital at Greenwich is Christopher Wren's last major building. The large hospital complex consists of 4 buildings, forming rectangular courtyards with a spacious area between the front buildings, facing the river with porticos of facades. Wide steps, on both sides of which are majestic domed buildings, lead to the second square between the second pair of courtyards. The twin-column colonnades that frame the square form a very spectacular perspective, ending with the Queens House of Inigo Jones. The architect also took part in the construction of the Greenwich Hospital Nicholas Hawksmoor(1661-1736). He began work during the life of Wren and continued them after the death of the architect.
Wren followed the path of Inigo Jones. But Jones absorbed the spirit of the Italian Renaissance, and Wren worked in the style of classicism.
The tradition of Christopher Wren continued James Gibbs(1682-1754) - the most striking and original figure of English architecture in the first half of the 18th century, one of the few representatives of the Baroque style in British architecture. He also built in the Palladian style, borrowing certain elements from him.
A. Soldi "Portrait of James Gibbs"
Gibbs's greatest influence was the work of Christopher Wren, but Gibbs gradually developed his own style. His famous Radcliffe Library in Oxford, austere and monumental, occupies one of the first places among the best monuments of English architecture.
The library is the most significant of Gibbs' buildings in terms of scale and artistic merit. This kind of centric structure consists of a 16-sided plinth, a cylindrical main part and a dome. The plinth is cut through by large arched door and window openings; the round main part is divided by paired columns into 16 piers, in which windows and niches arranged in two tiers alternate. A dome crowned with a lantern rises above the balustrade.
The library is one of the best monuments of English architecture.
Another masterpiece of Gibbs is the Church of St. Martin in the Fields.
St. Martin's Church in the Fields
It adorns Trafalgar Square in London. In St. Martin in the Fields, the influence of Christopher Wren can be traced, but the bell tower is not singled out as a separate building, it forms a single whole with the church building. Initially, contemporaries criticized this decision of the architect, but later the church became a model for numerous Anglican churches in England and beyond
English Palladianism
English Palladianism associated with the name William Kent(c. 1684-1748), architect, archaeologist, painter and publisher.
Villa in Chiswick (1723-1729)
The villa was erected by Lord Burlington with the direct participation of William Kent. This is the most famous building of English Palladianism. It almost literally repeats the Villa "Rotonda" by Andrea Palladio, with the exception of the facades.
Villa Park in Chiswick
The park facade is decorated with a portico with a pediment; a complex and refined staircase leads to the portico. The villa was not meant to be lived in, with no bedrooms or kitchens, just rooms for Burlington's art collections.
Thanks to the patronage of Lord Burlington, Kent received commissions for the construction of public buildings in London, such as Horse Guards.
horse guards
Horse Guards is the barracks of the Horse Guards in London. This is the most mature work of William Kent.
William Kent built several palaces in London. Carried out orders for interior design of country residences English nobility. The main work of Kent was the estate of Holkem Hall in Norfolk County.
Holkeme Hall in Norfolk
It was intended for the art collection of Lord Leicester. Especially famous are the interiors of Holkeme Hall, full of silk, velvet and gilding. Furniture was also made according to Kent's drawings.
English park
The landscape English park is an important achievement of English architecture of the 18th century. In the landscape park, the illusion of real, untouched nature was created, the presence of man and modern civilization was not felt here.
The first landscape park was arranged in the Palladian era in the estate of the poet Alexander Pope in Twicknam (a suburb of London). The French regular park seemed to him the personification of state tyranny, which subjugated even nature (the park of Versailles). The poet considered England a free country. An innovator in the gardening art of England was William Kent. He created the best landscape parks of that era: the park of the Villa Chiswick House, the Champs Elysees park in Stowe in Central England.
Park "Champs Elysees"
Particularly impressive were the artificial, purpose-built ruins called the Temple of Modern Virtue. Apparently, the ruins symbolized the decline of morals in modern society and were opposed to the luxurious Temple of ancient virtue, built by W. Kent in the antique style.
The Temple of Ancient Virtue, built by W. Kent in the antique style, is a round domed building surrounded by a colonnade of 16 smooth Ionic columns mounted on a low podium. The temple has two entrances in the form of arched openings, each of which leads to a 12-step staircase. There are 4 niches inside the temple, in which human-sized statues of ancient Greek celebrities are installed.
Already in the middle of the XVIII century. landscape parks were common in England, France, Germany, Russia.
The last major representative of Palladianism in English architecture was William Chambers(1723-1796) - Scottish architect, representative of classicism in architecture.
F. Kotes "Portrait of W. Chambers"
Chambers made a significant contribution to the development landscape gardening art. Thanks to Chambers, exotic (Chinese) motifs appeared in the traditional English landscape park.
big pagoda- the first building in the spirit of Chinese architecture in Europe. It was built in Richmond Gardens, Kew in 1761-1762. designed by the court architect William Chambers in accordance with the wishes of the mother of King George III, Augusta. The height is 50 m, the diameter of the lower tier is 15 m. Inside the pagoda there is a staircase of 243 steps, the roof is tiled.
Imitations of the pagoda at Kew appeared in the English Garden in Munich and other parts of Europe. At the whim of Catherine II, Chambers's compatriot, Charles Cameron, designed a similar structure in the center of the Chinese village of Tsarskoe Selo, but the project was not implemented. But the Chinese houses were still built.
Chinese houses. Chinese Village in the Alexander Park of Tsarskoe Selo
Neoclassical architecture
When in the middle of the XVIII century. in Italy, the first archaeological excavations of ancient monuments began, all the largest representatives of English neoclassicism went to Rome to see the ruins of ancient structures. Other English architects went to Greece to study ancient Greek buildings. In England, neoclassicism differed in that it took on lightness and elegance from antiquity, this was especially true of English neoclassical interiors. on the contrary, all buildings were lighter and more elegant.
G. Wilson "Portrait of Robert Adam"
He played a special role in the architecture of English neoclassicism. Robert Adam(1728-1792), Scottish architect from the Palladian Adam dynasty, the largest representative of British classicism of the 18th century. Adam relied on the study of ancient architecture and used strict classical forms. Adam's architectural activity was very wide. Together with his brothers James, John and William, he built manor houses and public buildings, built up entire streets, squares, city blocks of London. His creative method- rationalism, clothed in the forms of Greek antiquity.
House at Syon House in London. Arch. R. Adam (1762-1764). Reception. London, Great Britain)
The reception room at Syon House is one of Adam's most famous interiors. The room is decorated with twelve blue marble columns with gilded capitals and sculptures at the top. The trunks of these columns are truly antique - they were found at the bottom of the Tiber River in Rome, while the capitals and sculptures were made according to the drawings of Adam himself. The columns here do not support the ceiling, but are simply attached to the wall, but they give the room a majestic look.
During the life of the master, Adam's interiors were considered by many to be the highest achievement of English architecture. The traditions of their art have long retained their importance in English architecture.
But in the neoclassicism of the XVIII century. there were two architects whose manner differed from the "style of Adam": George Dance Jr.(1741-1825) and Sir John Soane(1753-1837). Dance's most famous building was Newgate Prison in London (not preserved). John Soane largely followed the style of Dance, was the chief architect of the Bank of England building (1795-1827) and devoted a significant part of his life to its construction.
"Gothic Revival" (Neo-Gothic)
In the middle of the XVIII century. buildings appeared in England that used motifs gothic architecture: lancet arches, high roofs with steep slopes, stained-glass windows. This period of enthusiasm for Gothic is commonly called the "Gothic revival" (Neo-Gothic). It continued until the beginning of the 20th century. and has become a popular style to this day: in England, buildings in the Gothic style are often built).
The founder of the "Gothic revival" was Count Horace Walpole(1717-1797) - writer, author of the first horror novel "The Castle of Otranto". In 1746-1790. he rebuilt in the Gothic style his villa in the estate of Strawberry Hill (Twicknam, a suburb of London).
Villa
Font Hill Abbey in Central England was built in 1796-1807. architect James Wyeth (1746-1813).
Font Hill Abbey (no longer extant)
Already in the XIX century. Gothic style became state. In this style in the middle of the XIX century. the Houses of Parliament in London were under construction (architect Charles Barry) - one of the main structures of English architecture of that time.
In the seventeenth century, the seven-hundred-year period of the great stone ancient Russian construction ends. Subsequently, it will fit into more than one fascinating page in the annals of world architecture. And already Russian architecture of the 18th century will become famous for a number of innovations in art and construction. It was these changes that were mainly due to the weighty demands of the government. First of all, the architecture of the 18th century in Russia was supposed to express all the power, strength and greatness of the vast empire in the form of architectural structures.
With the political and economic development of Russia, new requirements are also imposed on urban planning. Conventionally, all Russian architecture of the 18th century can be represented mainly by several architectural trends. This is primarily baroque and rococo, and, of course, classicism.
Russian architecture of the 18th century: main styles
According to the definition " baroque"is a unique trend in painting and art, the hallmarks of which are extraordinary splendor, a kind of contrast, as well as a special combination of the real and the illusory. Recognized masters of the 18th century in the Baroque style were considered Trezzini, Schluter, Michetti, Zemtsov, Rastrelli, Chevansky and Ukhtomsky. It was in their works that the architecture of the 18th century in Russia was most clearly expressed, their names will forever remain in the history of a great power.
The most significant contribution to the treasury of world and Russian architecture was the renovation of St. Petersburg. Among the variety of architectural structures of that time, the most impressive were: the Winter Palace, the Stroganov Palace, as well as the Smolny Monastery and Tsarskoye Selo. Petersburg could safely be called the cultural capital of that time. After all, it is there Russian architecture of the 18th century was large-scale. Unlike Moscow and all other cities of Russia, it was in St. Petersburg that the construction of religious buildings was practically not carried out - they were erected only in case of emergency.
Architecture in Russia in the 18th century, in particular, in the second half, begins to change significantly. Decorative baroque and prim rococo were replaced by the architectural and artistic style - classicism. It quickly established itself not only in St. Petersburg and Moscow, but also spread throughout the country.
Classicism in Russia
Classicism(translated from Latin - exemplary) - an artistic style created by concise combination of forms, a model and compositions of the art of the ancient world and a masterpiece of the Italian Renaissance.
The architecture of the 18th century in Russia is also formed in the capable hands of such famous founders of Russian classicism as: V. I. Bazhenov, A. F. Kokorinov, M. F. Kazakov, I. E. Starov. Talented architects erected beautiful monuments, in which both classical architectural principles and elements of world classics were present, and the traditions of the Russian architectural heritage were clearly traced. The architectural structures of these architects are distinguished by their characteristic simplicity and rigor, as well as rationality.
18th century architecture in Russia became famous for such works of architecture of early Russian classicism: Petersburg Academy of Arts, works by V. I. Bazhenov in Moscow - built Pashkov's house and the unrealized project of the majestic Kremlin Palace in Tsaritsyn; Golitsyn Hospital, Moscow Senate in the Kremlin, and Tauride Palace in St. Petersburg I. E. Starova and others.
The progressive traditions of Russian architecture of the 18th century were of great importance for the practice of later architecture. Every year the architecture was transformed, but some features of Russian architecture developed over the coming centuries, preserving traditions and sustainability until the 20th century.
Tatyana Ponka
Architecture. The leading direction in the architecture of the second half of the XVIII century. was classicism, which was characterized by an appeal to the images and forms of ancient architecture (order system with columns) as an ideal aesthetic standard.
A significant architectural event of the 60-80s. was the design of the embankments of the Neva. One of the attractions of St. Petersburg was the Summer Garden. In 1771 - 1786 The summer garden from the side of the Neva embankment was fenced with a lattice, the author of which is Yu.M. Felten (1730-1801) and his assistant P. Egorov. The lattice of the Summer Garden is made in the style of classicism: the vertical dominates here: vertically standing peaks cross rectangular frames, evenly distributed massive pylons support these frames, emphasizing with their rhythm the general feeling of majesty and peace. In 1780-1789 designed by architect A.A. Kvasov built granite embankments and slopes and entrances to the river.
Like many contemporaries, Yu.M. Felten was engaged in reworking the interiors of the Great Peterhof Palace (White Dining Room, Throne Room). In honor of the glorious victory of the Russian fleet over the Turkish in Chesma Bay in 1770, one of the halls of the Grand Peterhof Palace was Yu.M. Felten converted into the Chesme Hall. The main decoration of the hall was 12 canvases, executed in 1771-1772. by the German painter F. Hackert, dedicated to the battles of the Russian fleet with the Turkish. In honor of the Battle of Chesma, Yu.M. Felten built the Chesme Palace (1774-1777) and the Chesme Church (1777-1780) 7 versts from Petersburg on the way to Tsarskoye Selo. The palace and the church, built in the Gothic style, create a single architectural ensemble.
The greatest master of Russian classicism was V. I. Bazhenov (1737/38-1799). He grew up in the Moscow Kremlin, where his father was a deacon in one of the churches, and studied at the gymnasium at Moscow University. After graduating from the Academy of Arts in 1760, V.I. Bazhenov went as a pensioner to France and Italy. Living abroad, he enjoyed such fame that he was elected professor of Rome, a member of the Florentine and Bologna academies. In 1762, upon his return to Russia, he received the title of academician. But in Russia, the creative fate of the architect was tragic.
During this period, Catherine conceived the construction of the Grand Kremlin Palace in the Kremlin, and V.I. Bazhenov was appointed its chief architect. Project V.I. Bazhenov meant the reconstruction of the entire Kremlin. It was, in fact, a project for a new center of Moscow. It included the royal palace, the Collegia, the Arsenal, the Theater, the square, conceived like an ancient forum, with stands for public meetings. The Kremlin itself, thanks to the fact that Bazhenov decided to continue three streets with passages to the territory of the palace, connected with the streets of Moscow. For 7 years V.I. Bazhenov develops projects, prepares for construction, but in 1775 Catherine orders to curtail all work (officially - due to lack of funds, unofficially - due to the negative attitude of the public towards the project).
Several months pass, and V.I. Bazhenov is entrusted with the creation of a palace and park complex of buildings in the village of Chernaya Dirt (Tsaritsyno) near Moscow, where Catherine II decided to build her country residence. Ten years later, all the main work was completed. In June 1785, Catherine arrived in Moscow and inspected the Tsaritsyn buildings, then in January 1786 issued a decree: the palace and all buildings should be demolished, and V.I. Bazhenov dismissed without salary and pension. "This is a prison, not a palace," - such is the conclusion of the empress. The legend connects the demolition of the palace with its oppressive appearance. The construction of the new palace Catherine instructed M.F. Kazakov. But this palace was not completed either.
In 1784-1786. IN AND. Bazhenov built a manor for the wealthy landowner Pashkov, which is known as the house of P.E. Pashkov. The Pashkov House is located on the slope of a high hill, opposite the Kremlin, at the confluence of the Neglinka with the Moskva River and is an architectural masterpiece of the classicism era. The estate consisted of a residential building, an arena, stables, service and outbuildings, and a church. The building is notable for ancient austerity and solemnity with purely Moscow patterning.
Another talented Russian architect who worked in the style of classicism was M. F. Kazakov (1738-1812). Kazakov was not a pensioner and studied ancient and renaissance monuments from drawings and models. A great school for him was the joint work with Bazhenov, who invited him, on the project of the Kremlin Palace. In 1776, Catherine instructed M.F. Kazakov drafting a government building in the Kremlin - the Senate. The site allotted for the Senate building was an uncomfortable oblong triangular shape, surrounded on all sides by old buildings. So the Senate building received a general triangular plan. The building has three floors and is made of bricks. The center of the composition was the courtyard, into which the entrance-arch topped with a dome led. Having passed the entrance-arch, the person who entered found himself in front of a majestic rotunda crowned with a mighty dome. The Senate was supposed to sit in this bright round building. The corners of the triangular building are cut off. Due to this, the building is perceived not as a flat triangle, but as a solid massive volume.
M.F. Kazakov also owns the building of the Nobility Assembly (1784-1787). The peculiarity of this building was that in the center of the building the architect placed the Hall of Columns, and around it were numerous living rooms and halls. The central space of the Hall of Columns, intended for solemn ceremonies, is highlighted by a Corinthian colonnade, and the state of festivity is enhanced by the sparkle of numerous chandeliers and ceiling lighting. After the revolution, the building was given to trade unions and renamed the House of Unions. Starting with the funeral of V.I. Lenin, the Column Hall of the House of the Unions was used as a mourning room for farewell to statesmen and famous people. Currently, public meetings and concerts are held in the Hall of Columns.
The third largest architect of the second half of the 18th century is I. E. Starov (1744-1808). He studied first at the gymnasium at Moscow University, then at the Academy of Arts. The most significant building of Starov is the Tauride Palace (1782-1789) - a huge city estate of G.A. Potemkin, who received the title of Tauride for the development of the Crimea. The basis of the composition of the palace is the hall-gallery, dividing the entire complex of interiors into two parts. On the side of the main entrance, there is a series of rooms adjoining the octagonal domed hall. On the opposite side, there is a large winter garden. The exterior of the building is very modest, but it hides the dazzling luxury of the interiors.
Since 1780, the Italian Giacomo Quarenghi (1744–1817) has been working in St. Petersburg. His career in Russia was very successful. Architectural creations in Russia are a brilliant combination of Russian and Italian architectural traditions. His contribution to Russian architecture was that he, together with the Scot C. Cameron, set the standards for the architecture of St. Petersburg at that time. Quarenghi's masterpiece was the building of the Academy of Sciences, built in 1783-1789. The main center is highlighted by an eight-column Ionic portico, the splendor of which is enhanced by a typical St. Petersburg porch with a staircase for two "sprouts". In 1792-1796. Quarenghi builds the Alexander Palace in Tsarskoye Selo, which became his next masterpiece. In the Alexander Palace, the main motif is the powerful colonnade of the Corinthian order. One of the remarkable buildings of Quarenghi was the building of the Smolny Institute (1806-1808), which has a clear rational layout in accordance with the requirements of the educational institution. Its plan is typical of Quarenghi: the center of the facade is decorated with a majestic eight-column portico, the front courtyard is limited by the wings of the building and a fence.
At the end of the 70s, the architect C. Cameron (1743-1812), a Scot by birth, came to Russia. Brought up on European classicism, he managed to feel the whole originality of Russian architecture and fall in love with it. Cameron's talent manifested itself mainly in the exquisite palace and park suburban ensembles.
In 1777, Ekaterina's son Pavel Petrovich had a son - the future Emperor Alexander I. The delighted Empress gave Pavel Petrovich 362 acres of land along the Slavyanka River - the future Pavlovsk. In 1780, C. Cameron took up the creation of the palace and park ensemble of Pavlovsk. Outstanding architects, sculptors, artists took part in the construction of the park, palace and park structures, but the first period of the formation of the park under the leadership of Cameron was very significant. Cameron laid the foundations for the largest and best landscape park in Europe in the then fashionable English style - a park emphatically natural, landscape. After careful measurements, he laid the main arteries of roads, alleys, paths, allocated places for groves and meadows. Picturesque and cozy corners coexist here with small light buildings that do not violate the harmony of the ensemble. The true pearl of C. Cameron's work is the Pavlovsk Palace, which is built on a high hill. Following Russian traditions, the architect managed to “fit” architectural structures into a picturesque area, to combine man-made beauty with natural magnificence. The Pavlovsk Palace is devoid of pretentiousness, its windows from a high hill calmly look at the slowly flowing river Slavyanka.
The last architect of the XVIII century. V. Brenna (1747-1818) is rightfully considered the favorite architect of Pavel and Maria Feodorovna. After accession to the throne in 1796, Paul I removed C. Cameron from the post of chief architect of Pavlovsk and appointed V. Brenna in his place. From now on, Brenna directs all the buildings in Pavlovsk, participates in all significant buildings of the Pavlovian time.
Brenne, Paul I entrusted the management of work in his second country residence - Gatchina. Brenna's Gatchina Palace has a modest, even ascetic Spartan appearance, but the interior decoration is majestic and luxurious. At the same time, work began in the Gatchina park. On the shores of lakes and islands there are a large number of pavilions that look very simple on the outside, but their interiors are magnificent: the Venus Pavilion, the Birch House (resembling a log of birch firewood in appearance), Porta Masca and the Farmer's Pavilion.
Paul I decided to build a palace in St. Petersburg in his own style - in the spirit of military aesthetics. The palace project was developed by V.I. Bazhenov, but in connection with his death, Paul I entrusted the construction of the palace to V. Brenna. Paul always wanted to live where he was born. In 1797, on the Fontanka, on the site of the Summer Palace of Elizaveta Petrovna (where Pavel was born), the laying of the palace took place in honor of the Archangel Michael - the patron saint of the heavenly host - Mikhailovsky Castle. Mikhailovsky Castle became the best creation of Brenna, to which he gave the appearance of a fortress. The appearance of the castle is a quadrangle surrounded by a stone wall, ditches were dug on both sides around the palace. It was possible to get into the palace through drawbridges, and cannons were placed around the palace in different places. Initially, the exterior of the castle was full of decorations: marble statues, vases, and figures were everywhere. The palace had a vast garden and parade ground, where reviews and parades were held in any weather. But in his beloved castle, Pavel managed to live only 40 days. On the night of March 11-12, he was strangled. After the death of Paul I, everything that gave the palace the character of a fortress was destroyed. All the statues were transferred to the Winter Palace, the ditches were covered with earth. In 1819, the abandoned castle was transferred to the Main Engineering School, and its second name appeared - Engineering Castle.
Sculpture. In the second half of the XVIII century. the real flourishing of Russian sculpture begins, which is associated primarily with the name of F.I. Shubin (1740–1805), countryman M.V. Lomonosov. After graduating from the Academy with a big gold medal, Shubin went on a retirement trip, first to Paris (1767-1770) and then to Rome (1770-1772). Abroad in 1771, not from life, Shubin created a bust of Catherine II, for which, upon returning to his homeland in 1774, he received the title of academician.
The first work of F.I. Shubin after returning - a bust of A.M. Golitsyn (1773, Russian Museum) is one of the most brilliant works of the master. In the guise of an educated nobleman, intelligence, authority, arrogance are read, but at the same time, condescension and the habit of cautious "swimming" on the waves of changeable political fortune. In the image of the famous commander A. Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky, behind the not at all heroic appearance of a round face with a ridiculously upturned nose, the features of a strong and significant personality are conveyed (1778, State. Art Museum, Minsk).
Over time, interest in Shubin fades away. Executed without embellishment, his portraits were less and less liked by customers. In 1792, from memory, Shubin created a bust of M.V. Lomonosov (State Russian Museum, Academy of Sciences). In the face of the great Russian scientist there is neither stiffness, nor noble arrogance, nor excessive pride. A slightly mocking person is looking at us, wiser with worldly experience, who lived life brightly and difficultly. Liveliness of mind, spirituality, nobility, at the same time - sadness, disappointment, even skepticism - these are the main qualities inherent in the great Russian scientist, whom F.I. Shubin knew very well.
A masterpiece of portrait art by F.I. Shubin is a bust of Paul I (1798, RM; 1800, Tretyakov Gallery). The sculptor managed to convey the entire complexity of the image: arrogance, coldness, sickness, secrecy, but at the same time, the suffering of a person who from childhood experienced all the cruelty of a crowned mother. Paul I liked the work. But there were almost no orders. In 1801, the house of F.I. Shubin and workshop with works. In 1805, the sculptor died in poverty, his death went unnoticed.
At the same time, the French sculptor E.-M. Falcone (1716-1791; in Russia - from 1766 to 1778). Falcone worked at the court of the French king Louis XV, then at the Paris Academy. In his works, Falcone followed the rococo fashion that prevailed at the court. A true masterpiece was his work "Winter" (1771). The image of a sitting girl, personifying winter and covering the flowers at her feet with smoothly falling folds of clothing, like a snow cover, is full of quiet sadness.
But Falcone always dreamed of creating a monumental work, he managed to realize this dream in Russia. On the advice of Diderot, Catherine commissioned the sculptor to create an equestrian monument to Peter I. In 1766, Falcone arrived in St. Petersburg and began work. He depicted Peter I on horseback. The emperor's head is crowned with a laurel wreath - a symbol of his glory and victories. The hand of the king, pointing to the Neva, the Academy of Sciences and the Peter and Paul Fortress, symbolically denotes the main goals of his reign: education, trade and military power. The sculpture rises on a pedestal in the form of a granite rock weighing 275 tons. At the suggestion of Falcone, a laconic inscription is engraved on the pedestal: "To Peter the Great, Catherine the Second." The opening of the monument took place in 1782, when Falcone was no longer in Russia. Four years before the opening of the monument at E.-M. Falcone disagreed with the Empress, and the sculptor left Russia.
In the work of the remarkable Russian sculptor M.I. Kozlovsky (1753-1802) combined features of baroque and classicism. He was also retired in Rome, Paris. In the mid-90s, upon returning to his homeland, the most fruitful period in the work of Kozlovsky begins. The main theme of his works is from antiquity. From his works, young gods, cupids, beautiful shepherdesses came to Russian sculpture. Such are his "Shepherd with a Hare" (1789, Pavlovsk Palace Museum), "Sleeping Cupid" (1792, Russian Museum), "Cupid with an Arrow" (1797, Tretyakov Gallery). In the statue "The Vigil of Alexander the Great" (second half of the 80s, Russian Museum), the sculptor captured one of the episodes of the education of the will of the future commander. The most significant and largest work of the artist was the monument to the great Russian commander A.V. Suvorov (1799-1801, Petersburg). The monument has no direct portrait resemblance. This is rather a generalized image of a warrior, a hero, in whose military suit elements of weapons are combined ancient roman and a medieval knight. Energy, courage, nobility emanates from the whole appearance of the commander, from his proud turn of his head, the graceful gesture with which he raises his sword. Another outstanding work of M.I. Kozlovsky became the statue "Samson tearing apart the mouth of a lion" - the central one in the Great Cascade of Fountains of Peterhof (1800-1802). The statue was dedicated to Russia's victory over Sweden in the Great Northern War. Samson personified Russia, and the lion - defeated Sweden. The powerful figure of Samson is given by the artist in a complex turn, in intense movement.
During the Great Patriotic War the monument was stolen by the Nazis. In 1947, the sculptor V.L. Simonov recreated it on the basis of surviving photographic documents.
Painting. In the second half of the XVIII century. appears in Russian painting historical genre. Its appearance is associated with the name of A.P. Losenko. He graduated from the Academy of Arts, then as a pensioner he was sent to Paris. A.P. Losenko owns the first work from Russian history - "Vladimir and Rogneda". In it, the artist chose the moment when Prince Vladimir of Novgorod "begs forgiveness" from Rogneda, the daughter of the Polotsk prince, on whose land he went with fire and sword, killed her father and brothers, and forcibly took her as his wife. Rogneda suffers theatrically, raising her eyes; Vladimir is also theatrical. But the very appeal to Russian history was very characteristic of the era of high national upsurge in the second half of the 18th century.
The historical theme in painting was developed by G.I. Ugryumov (1764-1823). The main theme of his works was the struggle of the Russian people: with the nomads ("The Test of Strength by Jan Usmar", 1796-1797, Russian Museum); with German knights ("The solemn entry into Pskov of Alexander Nevsky after his victory over the German knights", 1793, Russian Museum); for the security of their borders ("The Capture of Kazan", 1797-1799, Russian Museum), etc.
The greatest success was painting in the second half of the 18th century. reaches in the portrait genre. To the most remarkable phenomena of Russian culture of the second half of the 18th century. belongs to the work of the painter F.S. Rokotov (1735/36–1808). He came from serfs, but received his freedom from his landowner. He mastered the art of painting at the works of P. Rotary. The young artist was lucky, his patron was the first president of the Academy of Arts I.I. Shuvalov. On the recommendation of I.I. Shuvalova F.S. Rokotov in 1757 received an order for a mosaic portrait of Elizaveta Petrovna (from the original by L. Tokke) for Moscow University. The portrait was such a success that F.S. Rokotov receives an order for portraits of Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich (1761), Emperor Peter III (1762). When Catherine II ascended the throne, F.S. Rokotov was already wide famous artist. In 1763, the artist painted the Empress in full growth, in profile, among a beautiful setting. Rokotov also painted another portrait of the Empress, half-length. The empress liked him very much, she believed that he was "one of the most similar." Catherine presented the portrait to the Academy of Sciences, where it remains to this day. Following the reigning persons, the portraits of F.S. Rokotov wished to have the Orlovs, Shuvalovs. Sometimes he created entire galleries of portraits of representatives of the same family in its various generations: the Baryatinskys, the Golitsyns, the Rumyantsevs, the Vorontsovs. Rokotov does not seek to emphasize the external advantages of his models, the main thing for him inner world person. Among the works of the artist, the portrait of Maykov (1765) stands out. In the guise of a major government official behind the languid effeminacy, insight, an ironic mind are guessed. The color of the portrait, built on a combination of green and red, creates the impression of full-bloodedness, vitality of the image.
In 1765 the artist moved to Moscow. Moscow is distinguished by greater freedom of creativity than official St. Petersburg. In Moscow, a special, "Rokotov" style of painting is taking shape. The artist creates a whole gallery of beautiful female images, among which the most remarkable is the portrait of A.P. Stuyskaya (1772, State Tretyakov Gallery). A slender figure in a light gray-silver dress, highly fluffed powdered hair, a long curl falling over her chest, a refined oval face with dark almond-shaped eyes - all add mystery and poetry to the image of a young woman. The exquisite coloring of the portrait - greenish marsh and golden brown, faded pink and pearl gray - enhances the impression of mystery. In the XX century. the poet N. Zabolotsky dedicated wonderful verses to this portrait:
Her eyes are like two clouds
Half smile, half cry
Her eyes are like two lies
Covered in mist of failures.
The successful embodiment of the image of A. Struyskaya in the portrait served as the basis for the legend, according to which the artist was not indifferent to the model. In fact, the name of the chosen one S.F. Rokotov is well known, and A.P. Struiskaya was happily married to her husband and was an ordinary landowner.
Another great artist of the 18th century was D.G. Levitsky (1735-1822) - the creator of the formal portrait and the great master of the chamber portrait. He was born in Ukraine, but at the turn of the 1950s and 1960s, Levitsky's life in St. Petersburg began, forever associated with this city and the Academy of Arts, in which he led the portrait class for many years.
In his models, he sought to emphasize originality, the most striking features. One of the most famous works artist is formal portrait P.A. Demidov (1773, State Tretyakov Gallery). A representative of a well-known mining family, P.A. Demidov was a fabulously rich man, a strange eccentric. In the formal portrait, original in design, Demidov is depicted standing in a relaxed pose against the backdrop of a colonnade and draperies. He stands in the deserted ceremonial hall, at home, in a nightcap and a scarlet dressing gown, gesturing to his amusements - a watering can and a pot of flowers, of which he was a lover. In his outfit, in his pose - a challenge to time and society. Everything is mixed in this person - kindness, originality, the desire to be realized in science. Levitsky was able to combine features of extravagance with elements of a ceremonial portrait: columns, drapery, a landscape overlooking the Orphanage in Moscow, for the maintenance of which Demidov donated huge sums.
In the early 1770s. Levitsky performs seven portraits of pupils of the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens - "Smolyanka" (all in the timing), famous for their musicality. These portraits have become the highest achievement of the artist. In them, the skill of the artist was manifested with particular completeness. E.N. Khovanskaya, E.N. Khrushchova, E.I. Nelidov are depicted in theatrical costumes during their performance of an elegant pastoral. In the portraits of G.I. Alymova and E.I. Molchanova, one of the heroines plays the harp, the other is shown sitting next to a scientific instrument with a book in her hand. Placed side by side, these portraits personified the benefits of "sciences and arts" for a reasonable, thinking person.
The highest point of the master's mature work was his famous allelogical portrait of Catherine II, the legislator in the Temple of Justice, repeated by the artist in several versions. This work occupies a special place in Russian art. It embodied the high ideas of the era about citizenship and patriotism, about the ideal ruler - an enlightened monarch, tirelessly caring for the welfare of his subjects. Levitsky himself described his work as follows: “The middle of the picture represents the inside of the temple of the goddess of justice, in front of which, in the form of the Legislator, H.I.V., burning poppy flowers on the altar, sacrifices her precious peace for the general peace.”
In 1787 Levitsky left teaching and left the Academy of Arts. One of the reasons for this was the artist's passion for mystical currents, which became quite widespread in Russia at the end of the 18th century. and his entry into the Masonic lodge. Not without the influence of new ideas in society, around 1792, a portrait of a friend of Levitsky and his mentor in Freemasonry, N.I. Novikov (TG). The amazing liveliness and expressiveness of Novikov’s gesture and gaze, which is not characteristic of the heroes of Levitsky’s portraits, a fragment of the landscape in the background - all this betrays the artist’s attempt to master a new, more modern pictorial language, already inherent in other artistic systems.
Another remarkable artist of this time was V. L. Borovikovsky (1757–1825). He was born in Ukraine, in Mirgorod, he studied icon painting with his father. In 1788 V.L. Borovikovsky was brought to St. Petersburg. He studied hard, honing his taste and skill, and soon became a recognized master. In the 1990s, he creates portraits that fully express the features of a new trend in art - sentimentalism. All "sentimental" portraits of Borovikovsky are images of people in a chamber setting, in simple outfits with an apple or a flower in their hand. The best of them is the portrait of M.I. Lopukhina. It is often called the highest achievement of sentimentalism in Russian painting. A young girl looks down from the portrait. Her posture is unconstrained, a simple dress fits loosely around her body, her fresh face is full of charm and charm. In the portrait, everything is in harmony, in harmony with each other: a shady corner of the park, cornflowers among the ears of ripe rye, fading roses, the languid, slightly mocking look of the girl. In the portrait of Lopukhina, the artist was able to show true beauty - spiritual and lyrical, inherent in Russian women. Features of sentimentalism appeared in V.L. Borovikovsky even in the image of the Empress. Now this is not a representative portrait of the "legislator" with all the imperial regalia, but an image of an ordinary woman in a dressing gown and cap on a walk in Tsarskoye Selo park with her beloved dog.
At the end of the XVIII century. a new genre appears in Russian painting - landscape. A new, landscape class was opened at the Academy of Arts, and S. F. Shchedrin became the first professor of the landscape class. He became the founder of the Russian landscape. It was Shchedrin who first worked out the compositional scheme of the landscape, which for a long time became exemplary. And on it S.F. Shchedrin taught more than one generation of artists. The heyday of Shchedrin's work fell on the 1790s. Among his works, the most famous are the series of views of Pavlovsky, Gatchina and Peterhof parks, views of Kamenny Island. Shchedrin captured specific types of architectural structures, but leading role he assigned not to them, but to the surrounding nature, with which man and his creations find themselves in harmonious fusion.
F. Alekseev (1753/54-1824) laid the foundation for the landscape of the city. Among his works of the 1790s. especially known are "View of the Peter and Paul Fortress and the Palace Embankment" (1793) and "View of the Palace Embankment from the Peter and Paul Fortress" (1794). Alekseev creates a sublime and at the same time a living image of a large, majestic, individual city in its beauty, in which a person feels happy and free.
In 1800, Emperor Paul I gave Alekseev the task of painting views of Moscow. The artist became interested in old Russian architecture. He stayed in Moscow for more than a year and brought back a number of paintings and many watercolors with views of Moscow streets, monasteries, suburbs, but mainly various images of the Kremlin. These species are highly reliable.
Work in Moscow enriched the world of the artist, allowed him to take a fresh look at the life of the capital when he returned there. In his St. Petersburg landscapes, the genre character is enhanced. Embankments, avenues, barges, sailboats are filled with people. One of the best works of this period is "View of the English Embankment from Vasilevsky Island" (1810s, Russian Museum). It found a measure, a harmonious ratio of the landscape itself and architecture. The writing of this picture completed the folding of the so-called urban landscape.
Engraving. In the second half of the century, wonderful engravers worked. "The true genius of engraving" was E. P. Chemesov. The artist lived only 27 years, about 12 works remained from him. Chemesov worked mainly in the portrait genre. The engraved portrait developed very actively at the end of the century. In addition to Chemesov, one can name G.I. Skorodumov, known for dotted engraving, which created special opportunities for "picturesque" interpretation (I. Selivanov. Portrait of Grand Duke Alexandra Pavlovna from the original by V.P. Borovikovsky, mezzotint; G.I. Skorodumov. self-portrait, pen drawing).
Arts and Crafts. In the second half of the 18th century, Gzhel ceramics reached a high artistic level - products of ceramic crafts in the Moscow region, the center of which was the former Gzhel volost. At the beginning of the XVII century. the peasants of the Gzhel villages began to make bricks, plain light-coloured glazed dishes, and toys from local clay. At the end of the XVII century. the peasants mastered the manufacture of "ant", i.e. covered with a greenish or brown glaze. Gzhel clays became known in Moscow, and in 1663 Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich ordered the study of Gzhel clays to begin. A special commission was sent to Gzhel, which included Afanasy Grebenshchikov, the owner of a ceramic factory in Moscow, and D.I. Vinogradov. Vinogradov stayed in Gzhel for 8 months. Mixing Orenburg clay with Gzhel (chernozem) clay, he got a real pure, white porcelain (porcelain). At the same time, Gzhel craftsmen worked at the factories of A. Grebenshchikov in Moscow. They quickly mastered the production of majolica, and began to make fermented pots, jugs, mugs, cups, plates, decorated with ornamental and narrative painting, filled with green, yellow, blue and violet-brown colors on a white field. From the end of the XVIII century. in Gzhel there is a transition from majolica to semi-faience. The painting of products is also changing - from multi-color, characteristic of majolica, to one-color painting with blue (cobalt). Gzhel tableware was widely distributed throughout Russia, Central Asia, and the Middle East. During the heyday of the Gzhel industry, there were about 30 factories for the production of dishes. Among the well-known manufacturers were the brothers Barmin, Khrapunov-novy, Fomin, Tadin, Rachkins, Guslins, Gusyatnikovs and others.
But the most successful were the brothers Terenty and Anisim Kuznetsov. Their factory arose at the beginning of the 19th century. in the village of Novo-Kharitonovo. From them, the dynasty continued the family business until the revolution, buying more and more plants and factories. In the second half of the XIX century. there is a gradual disappearance of the Gzhel craft with hand molding and painting, only large factories remain. From the beginning of 1920, separate pottery workshops, artels appeared. A genuine revival of Gzhel production begins in 1945. One-color blue underglaze (cobalt) painting was adopted.
In 1766, in the village of Verbilki near Dmitrov near Moscow, the Russified Englishman Frans Gardner founded the best private porcelain factory. He established his prestige as the first among private porcelain manufactures, creating in 1778-1785, commissioned by Catherine II, four magnificent order services, distinguished by purity and austerity of decor. The factory also produced figurines of Italian opera characters. Early 19th century marked a new stage in the development of Gardner porcelain. The factory's artists abandoned direct imitation of European models and tried to find their own style. Gardner's cups with portraits of the heroes of the Patriotic War of 1812 gained immense popularity. In 1820, the production of genre figurines depicting folk types according to the drawings of K.A. Zelentsov from the magazine "Magic Lantern". These were men and women engaged in the usual peasant work, peasant children, urban working people - shoemakers, janitors, peddlers. Figures of the peoples inhabiting Russia were made ethnographically accurately. Gardner's figurines have become a visible illustration of the history of Russia. F.Ya. Gardner found his own style of products, in which Empire forms were combined with the genre of motifs and the color saturation of the decor as a whole. Since 1891, the plant belonged to M.S. Kuznetsov. After the October Revolution, the plant became known as the Dmitrovsky Porcelain Factory, and since 1993 - "Verbilok Porcelain".
Fedoskino miniature . At the end of the XVIII century. in the village of Fedoskino near Moscow, a type of Russian lacquer miniature painting with oil paints on papier-mâché developed. The Fedoskino miniature arose thanks to one bad habit that was common in the 18th century. In those ancient times, it was very fashionable to sniff tobacco, and everyone did it: the nobility, commoners, men, women. Tobacco was stored in snuff boxes made of gold, silver, tortoiseshell, porcelain and other materials. And in Europe they began to make snuff boxes from pressed cardboard soaked in vegetable oil and dried at temperatures up to 100 ° C. This material began to be called papier-mâché (chewed paper). Snuff boxes were covered with black primer and black lacquer, and classical scenes were used in the painting. Such snuffboxes were very popular in Russia, so in 1796 in the village of Danilkovo, 30 km from Moscow, merchant P.I. Korobov began the production of round snuff boxes, which were decorated with engravings pasted on their lids. The engravings were covered with transparent varnish. Since 1819 Korobov's son-in-law P.V. owned the factory. Lukutin. Together with his son A.P. Lukutin, he expanded production, organized the training of Russian masters, under him the production was transferred to the village of Fedoskino. Fedoskino masters began to decorate snuffboxes, beads, caskets and other products with pictorial miniatures made with oil paints in a classical pictorial manner. Lukutin's items of the 19th century depict views of the Moscow Kremlin and other architectural monuments, scenes from folk life in the technique of oil painting. Troika rides, festivities or peasant dances, tea drinking at the samovar were especially popular. Thanks to the creativity of Russian masters, Lukutin's varnishes have acquired originality and national flavor, both in plots and in technology. The Fedoskino miniature is painted with oil paints in three to four layers - painting is successively performed (a general outline of the composition), writing or repainting (more detailed study), glazing (image modeling with transparent paints) and glare (finishing the work with light colors that convey glare on objects). The original Fedoskino technique is "writing through": a reflective material is applied to the surface before painting - metal powder, gold leaf or mother-of-pearl. Shining through transparent layers of glazing paints, these linings give the image depth, an amazing glow effect. In addition to snuff boxes, the factory produced caskets, eye cases, needle cases, covers for family albums, tea caddies, Easter eggs, trays and much more. Products of Fedoskino miniaturists were very popular not only in Russia, but also abroad.
Thus, in the second half of the 18th century, in the age of "Reason and Enlightenment", a unique, in many ways unique artistic culture was created in Russia. This culture was alien to national narrow-mindedness and isolation. With amazing ease, she absorbed and creatively reworked everything valuable that was created by the work of artists from other countries. New types and genres of art, new artistic trends, bright creative names were born.
Chapter “The Art of Russia. Architecture". Section "Art of the 18th century". General history of arts. Volume IV. Art of the 17th-18th centuries. Author: I.M. Schmidt; under the general editorship of Yu.D. Kolpinsky and E.I. Rotenberg (Moscow, Art State Publishing House, 1963)
The eighteenth century is the time of the remarkable flourishing of Russian architecture. Continuing; on the one hand, their national traditions, Russian masters during this period began to actively master the experience of contemporary Western European architecture, reworking its principles in relation to the specific historical needs and conditions of their country. They have enriched world architecture in many ways, introducing unique features into its development.
For Russian architecture of the 18th century. characteristic is the decisive predominance of secular architecture over religious architecture, the breadth of urban planning plans and decisions. A new capital was erected - Petersburg, as the state strengthened, the old cities expanded and rebuilt.
The decrees of Peter I contained specific instructions regarding architecture and construction. So, by his special order, it was ordered to display the facades of newly built buildings on the red line of streets, while in ancient Russian cities houses were often located in the back of courtyards, behind various outbuildings.
For a number of its stylistic features, Russian architecture of the first half of the 18th century. undoubtedly can be compared with the baroque style prevailing in Europe.
However, a direct analogy cannot be drawn here. Russian architecture - especially of Peter's time - had a much greater simplicity of forms than was characteristic of the late baroque style in the West. In its ideological content, it affirmed the patriotic ideas of the greatness of the Russian state.
One of the most remarkable buildings of the early 18th century is the Arsenal building in the Moscow Kremlin (1702-1736; architects Dmitry Ivanov, Mikhail Choglokov and Christophe Conrad). The large length of the building, the calm surface of the walls with sparsely spaced windows, and the solemnly monumental design of the main gate clearly testify to a new direction in architecture. Quite unique is the solution of the Arsenal's small paired windows, which have a semi-circular ending and huge external slopes like deep niches.
New trends also penetrated religious architecture. A striking example of this is the Church of the Archangel Gabriel, better known as the Menshikov Tower. It was built in 1704-1707. in Moscow, on the territory of the estate of A. D. Menshikov near Chistye Prudy, by the architect Ivan Petrovich Zarudny (died in 1727). Before the fire of 1723 (due to a lightning strike), the Menshikov Tower - like the bell tower of the Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg, which was built soon - was crowned with a high wooden spire, at the end of which there was a gilded copper figure of the archangel. In terms of height, this church surpassed the Ivan the Great Bell Tower in the Kremlin (The light, elongated dome of this church that exists now in a peculiar form was made already at the beginning of the 19th century. The restoration of the church dates back to 1780.).
The Menshikov Tower is a characteristic of Russian church architecture of the late 17th century. a composition of several tiers - "octagon" on the "four". At the same time, compared with the 17th century. new trends are clearly outlined here and new architectural techniques are used. Particularly bold and innovative was the use of a high spire in the church building, which was then so successfully used by St. Petersburg architects. Zarudny's appeal to the classical methods of the order system is characteristic. In particular, columns with Corinthian capitals, unusual for ancient Russian architecture, were introduced with great artistic tact. And already quite boldly - powerful volutes flanking the main entrance to the temple and giving it a special monumentality, originality and solemnity.
Zarudny also created wooden triumphal gates in Moscow - in honor of the Poltava victory (1709) and the conclusion of the Peace of Nystadt (1721). Since the time of Peter the Great, the erection of triumphal arches has become a frequent occurrence in the history of Russian architecture. Both wooden and permanent (stone) triumphal gates were usually richly decorated with sculpture. These buildings were monuments of the military glory of the Russian people and greatly contributed to the decorative design of the city.
With the greatest clarity and completeness, the new qualities of Russian architecture of the 18th century. appeared in the architecture of St. Petersburg. The new Russian capital was founded in 1703 and was built unusually quickly.
Petersburg is of particular interest from an architectural point of view. It is the only metropolitan city in Europe that originated entirely in the 18th century. In its appearance, not only the original trends, styles and individual talents of architects of the 18th century, but also the progressive principles of urban planning skills of that time, in particular planning, were vividly reflected. In addition to the brilliantly solved "three-beam" planning of the center of St. Petersburg, high urban planning manifested itself in the creation of complete ensembles, in the magnificent development of the embankments. The indissoluble architectural and artistic unity of the city and its waterways from the very beginning was one of the most important virtues and unique beauty of St. Petersburg. The composition of the architectural appearance of St. Petersburg in the first half of the 18th century. mainly associated with the activities of architects D. Trezzini, M. Zemtsov, I. Korobov and P. Eropkin.
Domenico Trezzini (c. 1670-1734) was one of those foreign architects who, having arrived in Russia at the invitation of Peter I, stayed here for long years and even for the rest of his life. The name Trezzini is associated with many buildings of early Petersburg; he owns "exemplary", that is, standard projects of residential buildings, palaces, temples, and various civil structures.
Trezzini did not work alone. A group of Russian architects worked with him, whose role in the creation of a number of structures was extremely responsible. The best and most significant creation of Trezzini is the famous Peter and Paul Cathedral, built in 1712-1733. The building is based on the plan of a three-aisled basilica. The most remarkable part of the cathedral is its bell tower directed upwards. Just like the Menshikov tower of Zarudny in its original form, the bell tower of the Peter and Paul Cathedral is crowned with a high spire, completed with the figure of an angel. The proud, light rise of the spire is prepared by all the proportions and architectural forms of the bell tower; a gradual transition from the bell tower itself to the "needle" of the cathedral was thought out. The bell tower of the Peter and Paul Cathedral was conceived and implemented as an architectural dominant in the ensemble of St. Petersburg under construction, as the personification of the greatness of the Russian state, which established its new capital on the shores of the Gulf of Finland.
In 1722-1733. another well-known Trezzini building is being created - the building of the Twelve Collegia. Strongly elongated, the building has twelve sections, each of which is designed as a relatively small but independent house with its own floor, pediment and entrance. Trezzini's favorite strict pilasters in this case are used to unite the two upper floors of the building and emphasize the measured, calm rhythm of the divisions of the facade. The proud, swift rise of the bell tower of the Peter and Paul Fortress Cathedral and the calm length of the building of the Twelve Collegia - these beautiful architectural contrasts were created by Trezzini with the impeccable tact of an outstanding master.
Most of Trezzini's works are characterized by restraint and even rigor in architectural solution buildings. This is especially noticeable next to the decorative splendor and rich design of the buildings of the mid-18th century.
The activities of Mikhail Grigoryevich Zemtsov (1686-1743), who initially worked for Trezzini and attracted the attention of Peter I with his talent, were diverse. Zemtsov, apparently, participated in all the major works of Trezzini. He completed the construction of the building of the Kunstkamera, begun by architects Georg Johann Mattarnovi and Gaetano Chiaveri, built the churches of Simeon and Anna, St. Isaac of Dalmatsky and a number of other buildings in St. Petersburg.
Peter I attached great importance to the regular development of the city. The well-known French architect Jean-Baptiste Leblon was invited to Russia to develop the master plan for St. Petersburg. However, the general plan of St. Petersburg drawn up by Leblon had a number of very significant shortcomings. The architect did not take into account the natural development of the city, and his plan was largely abstract. Leblon's project was only partially implemented in the planning of the streets of Vasilievsky Island. Russian architects made many significant adjustments to his layout of St. Petersburg.
A prominent urban planner of the early 18th century was the architect Pyotr Mikhailovich Eropkin (c. 1698-1740), who provided a remarkable solution for the three-beam layout of the Admiralty part of St. Petersburg (including Nevsky Prospekt). Carrying out a lot of work in the “Commission on the St. Petersburg Construction” formed in 1737, Eropkin was in charge of the development of other areas of the city. His work was cut short in the most tragic way. The architect was associated with the Volynsky group, which opposed Biron. Among other prominent members of this group, Yeropkin was arrested and in 1740 put to death.
Eropkin is known not only as an architect-practitioner, but also as a theorist. He translated the works of Palladio into Russian, and also began work on the scientific treatise "The Position of the Architectural Expedition". The last work, concerning the main issues of Russian architecture, was not completed by him; after his execution, this work was completed by Zemtsov and I.K. Korobov (1700-1747), the creator of the first stone building of the Admiralty. Topped with a tall thin spire, echoing the spire of the Peter and Paul Cathedral, the Admiralty Tower built by Korobov in 1732-1738 became one of the most important architectural landmarks of St. Petersburg.
Definition of the architectural style of the first half of the 18th century. usually causes a lot of controversy among researchers of Russian art. Indeed, the style of the first decades of the 18th century. was complex and often very contradictory. In its formation, the Western European Baroque style participated in a somewhat modified and more restrained form; influence of the Dutch architecture also affected. To one degree or another, the influence of the traditions of ancient Russian architecture also made itself felt. A distinctive feature of many of the first buildings in St. Petersburg was the harsh utility and simplicity of architectural forms. The unique originality of Russian architecture in the first decades of the 18th century. lies, however, not in the complex and sometimes contradictory interweaving of architectural styles, but, above all, in the urban scope, in the life-affirming power and grandeur of the buildings erected during this most important period for the Russian nation.
After the death of Peter I (1725), the extensive civil and industrial construction undertaken on his instructions fades into the background. A new period in the development of Russian architecture begins. The best forces of architects were now directed to palace construction, which had taken on an unusual scale. Since about the 1740s. a distinctly expressed style of Russian baroque is affirmed.
In the middle of the 18th century, the extensive activity of Bartholomew Varfolomeevich Rastrelli (1700-1771), the son of the famous sculptor K.-B. Rastrelli. Creativity Rastrelli-son entirely belongs to Russian art. His work reflected the increased power of the Russian Empire, the wealth of the highest court circles, which were the main customers of the magnificent palaces created by Rastrelli and the team led by him.
Of great importance was the activity of Rastrelli in the restructuring of the palace and park ensemble of Peterhof. The place for the palace and the extensive garden and park ensemble, which later received the name Peterhof (now Peterhof), was planned in 1704 by Peter I himself. In 1714-1717. Monplaisir and the stone Peterhof Palace were built according to the designs of Andreas Schlüter. In the future, several architects were included in the work, including Jean Baptiste Leblon, the main author of the layout of the park and fountains of Peterhof, and I. Braunstein, the builder of the Marly and Hermitage pavilions.
From the very beginning, the Peterhof Ensemble was conceived as one of the world's largest ensembles of garden and park structures, sculpture and fountains, rivaling Versailles. Magnificent in its integrity, the idea united the Grand Cascade and the grandiose stairways framing it with the Big Grotto in the center and towering over the entire palace into one inseparable whole.
In this case, without touching on the complex issue of authorship and the history of construction, which was carried out after the sudden death of Leblon, it should be noted the installation in 1735 of the sculptural group “Samson tearing the mouth of a lion” (authorship has not been precisely established), which is central in terms of compositional role and ideological design, which completed the first stage of creating the largest of the regular park ensembles of the 18th century.
In the 1740s the second stage of construction in Peterhof began, when a grandiose reconstruction of the Great Peterhof Palace was undertaken by the architect Rastrelli. While retaining some restraint in the decision of the old Peterhof Palace, characteristic of the style of Peter the Great, Rastrelli nevertheless significantly strengthened its baroque decoration. This was especially pronounced in the design of the left wing with the church and the right wing (the so-called Corps under the coat of arms) newly attached to the palace. The final of the main stages in the construction of Peterhof dates back to the end of the 18th - the very beginning of the 19th century, when the architect A.N. Voronikhin and a whole galaxy of outstanding masters of Russian sculpture, including Kozlovsky, Martos, Shubin, Shchedrin, Prokofiev, were involved in the work.
In general, Rastrelli's first projects, dating back to the 1730s, are still largely close to the style of Peter the Great's time and do not amaze with that luxury.
and pomposity, which are manifested in his most famous creations - the Grand (Catherine) Palace in Tsarskoye Selo (now Pushkin), the Winter Palace and the Smolny Monastery in St. Petersburg.
Having started the creation of the Catherine Palace (1752-1756), Rastrelli did not build it entirely anew. In the composition of his grandiose building, he skillfully included the already existing palace buildings of the architects Kvasov and Chevakinsky. Rastrelli united these relatively small buildings, interconnected by one-story galleries, into one majestic building of the new palace, the facade of which reached three hundred meters in length. Low one-story galleries were built on and thereby raised to the total height of the horizontal divisions of the palace, the old side buildings were included in the new building as projecting risalits.
Both inside and outside, Rastrelli's Catherine Palace was notable for its exceptional richness of decorative design, inexhaustible invention and variety of motives. The roof of the palace was gilded, above the balustrade encircling it, there were sculptural (also gilded) figures and decorative compositions. The facade was decorated with mighty figures of Atlanteans and intricate stucco depicting garlands of flowers. The white color of the columns stood out clearly against the blue color of the walls of the building.
The interior space of the Tsarskoye Selo Palace was decided by Rastrelli along the longitudinal axis. The numerous halls of the palace intended for ceremonial receptions formed a solemn beautiful enfilade. The main color combination of interior decoration is gold and white. Abundant gold carvings, images of frolicking cupids, exquisite forms of cartouches and volutes - all this was reflected in the mirrors, and in the evenings, especially on the days of solemn receptions and ceremonies, it was brightly lit by countless candles (This rare beauty palace was barbarously plundered and set on fire by the Germans). -fascist troops during the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945 Through the efforts of the masters of Soviet art, the Great Tsarskoye Selo Palace has now been restored as much as possible.).
In 1754-1762. Rastrelli is building another major building - the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg, which became the basis of the future Palace Square ensemble.
In contrast to the strongly elongated Tsarskoye Selo Palace, the Winter Palace is designed in terms of a huge closed rectangle. The main entrance to the palace was at that time in the spacious inner front yard.
Given the location of the Winter Palace, Rastrelli designed the facades of the building differently. Thus, the façade facing south, onto the subsequently formed Palace Square, is designed with a strong plastic accentuation of the central part (where the main entrance to the courtyard is located). On the contrary, the facade of the Winter Palace, facing the Neva, is designed in a calmer rhythm of volumes and colonnades, thanks to which the length of the building is better perceived.
Rastrelli's activities were mainly aimed at creating palace structures. But in church architecture, he left an extremely valuable work - the project of the ensemble of the Smolny Monastery in St. Petersburg. The construction of the Smolny Monastery, begun in 1748, dragged on for many decades and was completed by the architect V.P. Stasov in the first third of the 19th century. In addition, such an important part of the entire ensemble as the nine-tiered bell tower of the cathedral was never completed. In the composition of the five-domed cathedral and a number of general principles for solving the ensemble of the monastery, Rastrelli directly proceeded from the traditions of ancient Russian architecture. At the same time, we see here the characteristic features of the architecture of the mid-18th century: the splendor of architectural forms, the inexhaustible richness of decor.
Among the outstanding creations of Rastrelli are the wonderful Stroganov Palace in St. Petersburg (1750-1754), St. Andrew's Cathedral in Kiev, the Resurrection Cathedral of the New Jerusalem Monastery near Moscow, rebuilt according to his project, the wooden two-story Annenhof Palace in Moscow that has not survived to our time and others.
If Rastrelli's activity proceeded mainly in St. Petersburg, then another outstanding Russian architect, Korobov's student Dmitry Vasilievich Ukhtomsky (1719-1775), lived and worked in Moscow. Two remarkable monuments of Russian architecture of the mid-18th century are associated with his name: the bell tower of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra (1740-1770) and the stone Red Gate in Moscow (1753-1757).
By the nature of his work, Ukhtomsky is quite close to Rastrelli. Both the bell tower of the Lavra and the triumphal gates are rich in external design, monumental and festive. A valuable quality of Ukhtomsky is his desire to develop ensemble solutions. And although his most significant plans were not implemented (the project of the ensemble of the Invalid and Hospital Houses in Moscow), progressive trends in Ukhtomsky's work were picked up and developed by his great students - Bazhenov and Kazakov.
A prominent place in the architecture of this period was occupied by the work of Savva Ivanovich Chevakinsky (1713-1774/80). A student and successor of Korobov, Chevakinsky participated in the development and implementation of a number of architectural projects in St. Petersburg and Tsarskoye Selo. Chevakinsky's talent was especially fully manifested in the Nikolsky Naval Cathedral he created (St. Petersburg, 1753 - 1762). The slender four-tiered bell tower of the cathedral is wonderfully designed, charming with its festive elegance and impeccable proportions.
Second half of the 18th century marks a new stage in the history of architecture. Like other types of art, Russian architecture testifies to the strengthening of the Russian state and the growth of culture, reflects a new, more sublime idea of \u200b\u200bman. The ideas of civic consciousness proclaimed by the Enlightenment, ideas of an ideal noble state built on reasonable principles, find a peculiar expression in the aesthetics of 18th century classicism, and are reflected in more and more clear, classically restrained forms of architecture.
Starting from the 18th century. and until the middle of the 19th century, Russian architecture occupies one of the leading places in world architecture. Moscow, St. Petersburg and a number of other cities in Russia are enriched at this time with first-class ensembles.
The formation of early Russian classicism in architecture is inextricably linked with the names of A. F. Kokorinov, Wallen Delamotte, A. Rinaldi, Yu. M. Felten.
Alexander Filippovich Kokorinov (1726-1772) was among the direct assistants of one of the most prominent Russian architects of the mid-18th century. Ukhtomsky. As the latest research shows, the young Kokorinov built the palace ensemble glorified by his contemporaries in Petrovsky-Razumovsky (1752-1753), which has survived to this day changed and rebuilt. From the point of view of the architectural style, this ensemble was undoubtedly close to the magnificent palace buildings of the mid-18th century, erected by Rastrelli and Ukhtomsky. New, foreshadowing the style of Russian classicism, was, in particular, the use of a stern Doric order in the design of the entrance gate of the Razumovsky Palace.
Around 1760, Kokorinov began many years of joint work with Wallen Delamotte (1729-1800), who arrived in Russia. Originally from France, Delamotte came from a family of renowned architects, Blondel. The name of Wallen Delamotte is associated with such significant buildings in St. Petersburg as the Great Gostiny Dvor (1761-1785), the plan of which was developed by Rastrelli, and the Small Hermitage (1764-1767). Delamotte's building, known as New Holland, is the building of the Admiralty warehouses, with a subtle harmony of architectural forms, solemnly majestic simplicity, where the arch of simple dark red brick with decorative use of white stone, thrown across the canal, attracts special attention.
Wallin Delamotte participated in the creation of one of the most distinctive buildings of the 18th century. - Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg (1764-1788). The austere, monumental building of the Academy, built on Vasilyevsky Island, has become important in the city ensemble. The main façade overlooking the Neva is majestically and calmly resolved. The general design of this building testifies to the predominance of the style of early classicism over baroque elements.
The most striking plan of this building, which, apparently, was mainly developed by Kokorinov. Behind the outwardly calm facades of the building, which occupies an entire city block, lies the most complex internal system of educational, residential and utility rooms, stairs and corridors, courtyards and passages. Particularly noteworthy is the layout of the internal courtyards of the Academy, which included one huge round courtyard in the center and four smaller courtyards, having a rectangular plan, each of which has two rounded corners.
A building close to the art of early classicism is the Marble Palace (1768-1785). Its author was the Yan architect Antonio Rinaldi (c. 1710-1794), who was invited to Russia. In the earlier buildings of Rinaldi, the features of the late baroque and rococo style were clearly manifested (the latter is especially noticeable in the sophisticated decoration of the apartments of the Chinese Palace in Oranienbaum).
Along with large palace and park ensembles, manor architecture is gaining more and more development in Russia. Particularly lively construction of estates unfolded in the second half of the 18th century, when Peter III issued a decree on the release of the nobles from compulsory civil service. Having dispersed to their family and newly received estates, the Russian nobles began to intensively build and improve, inviting the most prominent architects for this, and also widely using the work of talented serf architects. Estate building reached its peak in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
The master of early classicism was Yuri Matveyevich Felten (1730-1801), one of the creators of the wonderful Neva embankments associated with the implementation of urban development work in the 1760s-1770s. Closely connected with the ensemble of the Neva embankments is the construction of the Summer Garden lattice, striking in its nobility of its forms, in the design of which Felten participated. Of the structures of Felten, the building of the Old Hermitage should be mentioned.
In the second half of the 18th century lived and worked one of the greatest Russian architects - Vasily Ivanovich Bazhenov (1738-1799). Bazhenov was born into the family of a sexton near Moscow, near Maloyaroslavets. At the age of fifteen, Bazhenov was in the artel of painters at the construction of one of the palaces, where the architect Ukhtomsky drew attention to him, who accepted the gifted young man into his "architectural team". After the organization of the Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg, Bazhenov was sent there from Moscow, where he studied at the gymnasium at Moscow University. In 1760, Bazhenov traveled as a pensioner of the Academy abroad, to France and Italy. The outstanding natural talent of the young architect already in those years received high recognition, the twenty-eight-year-old Bazhenov came from abroad with the title of professor of the Roman Academy and the title of academician of the Florentine and Bologna Academies.
Bazhenov's exceptional talent as an architect, his great creative scope, were especially clearly manifested in the project of the Kremlin Palace in Moscow, on which he began to work in 1767, having actually conceived the creation of a new Kremlin ensemble.
According to Bazhenov's project, the Kremlin was to become, in the full sense of the word, the new center of the ancient Russian capital, moreover, most directly connected with the city. Based on this project, Bazhenov even intended to tear down part of the Kremlin wall from the side of the Moscow River and Red Square. Thus, the newly created ensemble of several squares in the Kremlin and, first of all, the new Kremlin Palace would no longer be separated from the city.
The facade of the Bazhenov Kremlin Palace was supposed to face the Moscow River, to which from above, from the Kremlin hill, solemn stairways, decorated with monumental and decorative sculpture, led.
The building of the palace was designed as four-story, with the first two floors having a service purpose, and the third and fourth floors were actually palace apartments with large double-height halls.
In the architectural solution of the Kremlin Palace, new squares, as well as the most significant interior spaces, an exceptionally large role was assigned to the colonnades (mainly of the Ionic and Corinthian orders). In particular, a whole system of colonnades surrounded the main of the squares designed by Bazhenov in the Kremlin. The architect intended to surround this square, which had an oval shape, with buildings with strongly protruding basement parts, forming, as it were, stepped stands for accommodating people.
Extensive preparatory work began; in a specially built house, a wonderful (preserved to this day) model of the future structure was made; carefully developed and designed by Bazhenov, the interior decoration and decoration of the palace ...
A cruel blow awaited the unsuspecting architect: as it turned out later, Catherine II was not going to complete this grandiose construction, it was started by her mainly with the aim of demonstrating the power and wealth of the state during the Russian-Turkish war. Already in 1775, the construction was completely stopped.
In subsequent years, the most important work of Bazhenov was the design and construction of an ensemble in Tsaritsyn near Moscow, which was supposed to be the summer residence of Catherine II. The ensemble in Tsaritsyn is a country estate with an asymmetric arrangement of buildings, executed in an original style, sometimes called “Russian Gothic”, but to a certain extent based on the use of motives of Russian architecture of the 17th century.
It is in the traditions of ancient Russian architecture that Bazhenov gives combinations of red brick walls of Tsaritsyno buildings with white stone details.
The surviving Bazhenov buildings in Tsaritsyn - the Opera House, the Figured Gate, the bridge across the road - give only a partial idea of the general plan. Bazhenov's project was not only not implemented, but even the palace, which he had almost completed, was rejected by the empress who arrived and, on her orders, was demolished.
Bazhenov paid tribute to the emerging pre-romantic tendencies in the project of the Mikhailovsky (Engineering) Castle, which, with some changes, was carried out by the architect V. F. Brenna. Built by order of Paul I in St. Petersburg, the Mikhailovsky Castle (1797-1800) was at that time a structure surrounded, like a fortress, by moats; drawbridges were thrown over them. The tectonic clarity of the general architectural design and, at the same time, the complexity of planning were combined here in a peculiar way.
In most of his projects and constructions, Bazhenov acted as the greatest master of early Russian classicism. A remarkable creation of Bazhenov is the Pashkov House in Moscow (now the old building of the State Library named after V. I. Lenin). This building was built in 1784-1787. A palace-type building, the Pashkov House (named after the name of the first owner) turned out to be so perfect that both from the point of view of the urban ensemble and for its high artistic merits, it took one of the first places among the monuments of Russian architecture.
The main entrance to the building was arranged from the side of the main courtyard, where there were several outbuildings of the palace-estate. Located on a hill rising from Mokhovaya Street, Pashkov's house faces the Kremlin with its main facade. The main architectural array of the palace is its central three-story building, crowned with a light belvedere. On both sides of the building there are two side two-story buildings. The central building of the Pashkov house is decorated with a Corinthian order colonnade that unites the second and third floors. The side pavilions have smooth Ionic columns. The subtle thoughtfulness of the overall composition and all the details gives this structure an extraordinary lightness and at the same time significance, monumentality. The true harmony of the whole, the elegance of the elaboration of details eloquently testify to the genius of its creator.
Another great Russian architect who worked at one time with Bazhenov was Matvei Fedorovich Kazakov (1738-1812). A native of Moscow, Kazakov, even more closely than Bazhenov, connected his creative activity with Moscow architecture. When he was thirteen years old in the school of Ukhtomsky, Kazakov learned the art of architecture in practice. He was neither at the Academy of Arts, nor abroad. From the first half of the 1760s. young Kazakov was already working in Tver, where a number of buildings, both residential and public, were built according to his design.
In 1767, Kazakov was invited by Bazhenov as his direct assistant to design the ensemble of the new Kremlin Palace.
One of the earliest and at the same time the most significant and famous buildings of Kazakov is the Senate building in Moscow (1776-1787). The Senate building (currently housing the Supreme Soviet of the USSR) is located inside the Kremlin near the Arsenal. Triangular in plan (with courtyards), one of its facades faces Red Square. The central compositional node of the building is the Senate Hall, which has a huge domed ceiling for that time, the diameter of which reaches almost 25 m. stucco.
The next well-known creation of Kazakov is the building of Moscow University (1786-1793). This time, Kazakov turned to the widespread plan of the city estate in the form of the letter P. In the center of the building there is an assembly hall in the form of a semi-rotunda with a domed ceiling. The original appearance of the university, built by Kazakov, differs significantly from the external design that D. I. Gilardi gave him, who restored the university after the fire of Moscow in 1812. Doric colonnade, reliefs and a pediment above the portico, aedicules on the ends of the side wings, etc. - all this was not in Kazakov's building. It looked taller and not as developed in front. The main facade of the university in the 18th century. had a more slender and light colonnade of the portico (Ionic order), the walls of the building were divided by blades and panels, the ends of the side wings of the building had Ionic porticos with four pilasters and a pediment.
Just like Bazhenov, Kazakov sometimes turned to the traditions of architecture in his work. Ancient Rus', for example, in the Petrovsky Palace, built in 1775-1782. Pitcher-shaped columns, arches, window decorations, hanging weights, etc., together with red brick walls and white stone decorations, clearly echoed pre-Petrine architecture.
However, most of Kazakov's church buildings - the Church of Philip the Metropolitan, the Church of the Ascension on Gorokhovskaya Street (now Kazakova Street) in Moscow, the Baryshnikov Mausoleum Church (in the village of Nikolo-Pogorel, Smolensk Region) - were solved not so much in terms of ancient Russian churches, but in the spirit classically solemn secular buildings - the rotunda. A special place among the church buildings of Kazakov is occupied by the church of Cosmas and Damian in Moscow, which is peculiar in its plan.
Sculptural decoration plays an important role in Kazakov's works. A variety of stucco decorations, thematic bas-reliefs, round statues, etc., largely contributed to the high degree of decoration of buildings, their festive solemnity and monumentality. Interest in the synthesis of architecture and sculpture manifested itself in Kazakov's last significant building - the building of the Golitsyn Hospital (now the 1st City Hospital) in Moscow, the construction of which dates back to 1796-1801. Here Kazakov is already close to the architectural principles of classicism of the first third of the 19th century, as evidenced by the calm smooth surface of the wall planes, the composition of the building and its outbuildings stretched along the street, the rigor and restraint of the overall architectural design.
Kazakov made a great contribution to the development of manor architecture and the architecture of a city residential mansion. Such are the house in Petrovsky-Alabin (completed in 1785) and Gubin's beautiful house in Moscow (1790s), which are distinguished by their clear simplicity of composition.
One of the most gifted and illustrious masters of architecture of the second half of the 18th century was Ivan Yegorovich Staroy (1745-1808), whose name is associated with many buildings in St. Petersburg and the provinces. The largest work of Starov, if we talk about the buildings of the master that have come down to us, is the Tauride Palace, built in 1783-1789. In Petersburg.
Even Starov's contemporaries highly valued this palace as meeting the high requirements of genuine art - it is as simple and clear in its design as it is majestic and solemn. According to the decision of the interior, this is not only a residential palace-estate, but also a residence intended for ceremonial receptions, festivities and entertainment. The central part of the palace is highlighted by a dome and a six-columned Roman-Doric portico, located in the depths of the main courtyard, wide open to the outside. The significance of the central part of the building is set off by the low one-story side wings of the palace, the design of which, like the side buildings, is very strict. Solemnly resolved the interior of the palace. Granite and jasper columns located directly opposite the entrance make up the semblance of an internal triumphal arch. From the vestibule, those who entered entered the monumentally decorated domed hall of the palace, and then into the so-called Great Gallery with a solemn colonnade, consisting of thirty-six columns of the Ionic order, placed in two rows on both sides of the hall.
Even after repeated rebuildings and changes inside the Tauride Palace, made in subsequent times, the grandeur of the architect's plan leaves an indelible impression. In the early 1770s. Starov is appointed chief architect of the "Commission on the stone structure of St. Petersburg and Moscow." Under his leadership, planning projects for many Russian cities were also developed.
In addition to Bazhenov, Kazakov and Starov, many other outstanding architects are working in Russia at the same time - both Russian and those who came from abroad. The wide construction opportunities available in Russia attract large foreign craftsmen who did not find such opportunities in their homeland.
Charles Cameron (1740s - 1812), a Scot by origin, was an outstanding master of architecture, especially of palace and park structures.
In 1780-1786. Cameron is building a complex of landscape gardening structures in Tsarskoe Selo, which includes a two-story building of the Cold Baths with Agate Rooms, a hanging garden and, finally, a magnificent open gallery bearing the name of its creator. The Cameron Gallery is one of the architect's most accomplished works. Her extraordinary lightness and elegance of proportions are striking; majestically and uniquely designed staircase flanked by copies from the ancient statues of Hercules and Flora.
Cameron was master craftsman interior design. With impeccable taste and sophistication, he develops the decoration of several rooms of the Great Catherine Palace (Catherine II’s bedroom, see illustration, “Snuffbox” cabinet), the Agate Rooms pavilion, as well as Pavlovsk Palace (1782-1786) (Italian and Greek halls, billiard room and others).
Of great value is not only the palace created by Cameron in Pavlovsk, but also the entire garden and park ensemble. In contrast to the more regular planning and development of the famous Peterhof Park, the ensemble in Pavlovsk is the best example of a “natural” park with freely scattered pavilions. In a picturesque landscape, among groves and clearings, near the Slavyanka River curving around the hills, there is a pavilion - the Temple of Friendship, an open rotunda - the Apollo Colonnade, the pavilion of the Three Graces, an obelisk, bridges, etc.
Late 18th century in the architecture of Russia, it already in many respects anticipates the next stage of development - the mature classicism of the first third of the 19th century, also known as the "Russian Empire". New trends are noticeable in the work of Giacomo Quarenghi (1744-1817). Still at home, in Italy, Quarenghi is fond of Palladianism and becomes a zealous champion of classicism. Not finding the proper use of his forces in Italy, Quarenghi came to Russia (1780), where he remained for the rest of his life.
Having started his activity with work in Peterhof and Tsarskoe Selo, Quarenghi moved on to the construction of the largest metropolitan buildings. The Hermitage Theater (1783-1787), the building of the Academy of Sciences (1783-1789) and the Assignation Bank (1783-1790) in St. Petersburg, as well as the Alexander Palace in Tsarskoye Selo (1792-1796) created by him, are strict, classical buildings in their decision , which in many ways already herald the next stage in the development of Russian architecture. Strictly speaking, the creative activity of Quarenghi in Russia is almost equally divided between the 18th and 19th centuries. Of the most famous buildings of Quarenghi of the early 19th century. the hospital building on Liteiny Prospekt, the Anichkov Palace, the Horse Guards Manege and the wooden Narva triumphal gates of 1814 stand out.
The most outstanding creation of Quarenghi of the early 19th century. is the Smolny Institute (1806-1808). In this work, the characteristic features of Quarenghi as a representative of mature classicism in architecture are visible: the desire for large and concise architectural forms, the use of monumental porticos, the emphasis on the powerful basement of the building, processed with large rustication, the utmost clarity and simplicity of planning.
The main features of the development of architecture of the XVIII century in Russia
XVIII century - important in the history of Russian architecture, the flowering of architecture in Russia:
- Three trends are characteristic, which manifested themselves consistently over the course of the century: baroque, rococo, classicism. There is a transition from baroque (Naryshkin and Peter the Great) to classicism of the second half of the 18th century.
- Western and Russian traditions, Modern times and the Middle Ages are successfully combined in architecture.
- New cities appear, architectural monuments are born, which today belong to the historical and cultural heritage of Russia.
- St. Petersburg becomes the main center of construction: palaces with facades and parade structures were built, palace and park ensembles were created.
- Special attention was paid to the construction of civil architecture objects: theaters, factories, shipyards, collegiums, public and industrial buildings.
- There is a beginning of the transition to the planned development of cities.
- Foreign masters are invited to Russia: Italian, German, French, Dutch.
- In the second half of the 18th century, palace and park buildings became attractions not only in the capital, but also in provincial and district cities.
The development of the architecture of Russia in the 18th century can be divided into three time periods, each of which accounts for the development of a particular direction, namely:
- First third of the 18th century. Baroque.
- Middle of the 18th century. Baroque and Rococo.
- End of the 18th century. Classicism.
Let's take a closer look at each period.
The main architectural styles of the 18th century in Russia
First third of the 18th century is inextricably linked with the name of Peter I. The cities of Russia during this period are undergoing changes in terms of architectural planning and in the socio-economic aspect. With the development of industry, the emergence of a large number of industrial cities and towns is associated. Great importance is given to the appearance, facades of ordinary buildings and residential buildings, as well as theaters, town halls, hospitals, schools, orphanages. The active use of brick instead of wood in construction dates back to 1710, but it concerns, first of all, the capital cities, however, for peripheral cities, brick and stone belong to the forbidden category.
Along with the development of civil engineering, considerable attention is paid to the improvement of streets, lighting, and trees are planted. Everything was affected by Western influence and the will of Peter, which was expressed by the issuance of decrees that revolutionized urban planning.
Remark 1
Russia occupies a worthy place in urban planning and improvement, thus catching up with Europe.
The main event of the beginning of the century was the construction of St. Petersburg and Moscow's Lefortovo Sloboda. Peter I sends domestic masters to study in Europe, inviting foreign architects to Russia. Among them are Rastrelli (father), Michetti, Trezzini, Leblon, Schedel. The predominant direction of this period is baroque, which is characterized by a simultaneous combination of reality and illusion, pomp and contrast.
The construction of the Peter and Paul Fortress in 1703 and the Admiralty in 1704 marks the beginning of the construction of St. Petersburg. Thanks to the well-coordinated work of foreign and Russian masters, Western architectural features merged with native Russian ones, eventually creating the Russian Baroque or Baroque of the Petrine era. This period includes the creation of the summer palace of Peter the Great, the Kunstkamera, the Menshikov Palace, the building of the Twelve Colleges, the Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg. The creation of the ensembles of the Winter Palace, Tsarskoye Selo, Peterhof, the Stroganov Palace, and the Smolny Monastery took place in a later period. The churches of the Archangel Gabriel and John the Warrior on Yakimanka are architectural creations in Moscow, the Peter and Paul Cathedral in Kazan.
Figure 1. Admiralty in St. Petersburg. Author24 - online exchange of student papers
An irreparable loss was the death of Peter I for the state, although in essence it had no effect on the development of architecture and urban planning in the middle of the 18th century. The Russian state has strong personnel. Michurin, Blank, Korobov, Zemtsov, Eropkin, Usov are the leading Russian architects of the time.
Rococo is a style that characterizes this period, a combination of baroque and only emerging classicism. Gallantry and confidence are the main features of that time. The buildings of that time still possess pomp and pomp, while at the same time showing strict features of classicism.
Rococo period coincides with the reign of Peter's daughter Elizabeth and is marked by the work of Rastrelli (son), whose projects fit very organically into the history of Russian architecture of the 18th century. Rastrelli was brought up in Russian culture and well understood the Russian character. His work kept pace with his contemporaries Ukhtomsky, Chevakinsky, Kvasov. Dome compositions have become widespread, replacing the spire-shaped ones. In Russian history, there are no analogues of scope and splendor inherent in the ensembles of that time. The high art of Rastrelli and his contemporaries, with all their recognition, was replaced by classicism in the second half of the 18th century.
Remark 2
The most grandiose projects of the period are the new general plan of St. Petersburg and the redevelopment of Moscow.
In the last third of the 18th century in architecture, the features of a new direction begin to appear - Russian classicism - as it was later called. This direction is characterized by ancient rigor of forms, simplicity and rationality of designs. Classicism most manifested itself in the Moscow architecture of that time. Among the many famous creations, the Pashkov house, the Tsaritsyn complex, the Razumovsky palace, the Senate building, the Golitsyn house should be noted. At that time, the construction of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra, the Hermitage, the Hermitage Theater, the Academy of Sciences, the Tauride Palace, the Marble Palace was taking place in St. Petersburg. Kazakaov, Ukhtomsky, Bazhenov are famous and outstanding architects of that time.
The changes affected many provincial cities, among them: Nizhny Novgorod, Kostroma, Arkhangelsk, Yaroslavl, Oranienbaum (Lomonosov), Odoev Bogoroditsk, Tsarskoye Selo (Pushkin).
During this period, the economic and industrial centers of the Russian state are born: Taganrog, Petrozavodsk, Yekaterinburg and others.
