Reasons underlying writing and reading disorders. Dysgraphia is a partial specific disorder of the writing process. Partial specific disorder of the writing process.

Manifested in persistent, repeated errors due to the immaturity of the higher mental functions involved in the writing process.

Dysgraphia makes up a significant percentage of other speech disorders found in students of secondary schools. It is a serious obstacle to students’ mastery of literacy at the initial stages of education, and at later stages to mastering the grammar of their native language.

In modern literature, various terms are used to refer to specific writing disorders. Partial writing impairments are called dysgraphia, complete inability to write is called agraphia.

In a number of countries (for example, in the USA), reading and writing disorders are defined by the same term “dyslexia”. In other countries, specific writing disorders are defined by the term “dysorthography” (for example, in France).

In Russian literature, the terms “dysgraphia” and “dysorthography” are contrasted, i.e. are demarcated.

For differential diagnosis of these disorders, it is necessary to clarify the criteria on the basis of which errors in dysgraphia and dysorthography are distinguished. This main criterion is the spelling principle that is predominantly violated. It is known that the following basic principles are distinguished in Russian orthography:

Phonetic (phonemic),

Morphological,

Traditional.

The phonetic (phonemic) principle of spelling is based on sound (phonemic) analysis of speech.

Words are written as they are heard and pronounced (house, grass, ditch). The writer analyzes the sound composition of the word and denotes sounds with certain letters. Thus, to implement the phonemic principle of writing, the formation of phoneme differentiation and phonemic analysis is necessary.

The morphological principle is that morphemes of words (root, prefix, suffix, ending) with the same meaning have the same spelling, although their pronunciation in strong and weak positions may be different (house - do(a)mA, table - hundred( a)ly). The use of the morphological principle presupposes the ability to identify meaningful morphemes of a word, determine the morphological structure of a word, and identify morphemes with the same meaning, the pronunciation of which may differ in different phonetic conditions. The level of development of morphological analysis is closely related to the development of vocabulary and grammatical structure of speech.

And finally, the traditional principle assumes a spelling of a word that has developed in the history of the development of writing and cannot be explained by the phonetic or morphological principle of spelling.

Taking into account the principles of spelling, we can conclude that dysgraphia is predominantly associated with a violation of the implementation of the phonetic principle, and with dysorthography, the use of morphological and traditional spelling principles is disrupted.

Symptoms

In accordance with the definition of the term “dysgraphia,” the following features of errors in dysgraphia can be distinguished:

1. As with dyslexia, errors in dysgraphia are persistent and specific, which makes it possible to distinguish these errors from “growth” errors, “physiological” (according to B.G. Ananyev) errors that naturally occur in children when mastering writing. It should be noted that errors in dysgraphia are similar in appearance to so-called physiological errors. However, in dysgraphia these errors are more numerous, repeated and persist for a long time.

2. Dysgraphic errors are associated with the immaturity of higher mental functions involved in the writing process - differentiation of phonemes by ear and in pronunciation, analysis of sentences into words, syllabic and phonemic analysis and synthesis, lexico-grammatical structure of speech, optical-spatial functions.

Violation of elementary functions (analyzer) can also lead to writing disorders. But these writing disorders are not considered dysgraphia.

Writing impairments in children (for example, with mental retardation) may be associated with pedagogical neglect, impaired attention, control, which disorganize the entire writing process as a complex speech activity. However, in this case, errors, if they are not associated with the immaturity of higher mental functions, are not specific, but variable in nature and therefore are not dysgraphic.

3. Errors in dysgraphia are characterized by a violation of the phonetic principle of writing, i.e. errors are observed in a strong phonetic position (lopada - instead of a shovel, dm - house), in contrast to spelling errors, which are observed only in a weak phonetic position (vadyanoy - water, lady - house).

4. Errors are characterized as dysgraphic when they are observed in school-age children.

In preschool children, writing is accompanied by numerous errors, similar in nature and manifestation to dysgraphic ones. However, in preschool children, many of the mental functions that support the writing process are not yet sufficiently formed. Therefore, these errors are natural, “physiological”.

The following groups of errors in dysgraphia are distinguished:

Distorted spelling of letters (for example, e – s, s – e)

Handwritten letter replacements:

A) graphically similar (e.g., c – d, l – m, c – sch)

B) denoting phonetically similar sounds (eg, d - t, b - p, g - k)

3. Distortion of the sound-letter structure of a word: permutations, additions, perseveration, contamination of letters, syllables (for example, spring - spring, stana - country, kulbok - ball).

4. Distortion of the structure of the sentence: random spelling of a word, continuous spelling of words, contamination of words (for example, Rooks fly from the warm countries).

5. Agrammatisms in writing (eg, many pencils, no keys, on branches).

Types of dysgraphia

Based on modern ideas about the essence of dysgraphia, the most significant criterion for the classification of dysgraphia is the immaturity of certain operations of the writing process. Taking this criterion into account, the following types of dysgraphia can be distinguished:

This form of dysgraphia was identified by M.E. Khvattsev. In the classification of M.E. Khvattsev it was designated as dysgraphia due to oral speech disorders, or “tongue-tied writing.”

The mechanism of this type of dysgraphia is the incorrect pronunciation of speech sounds, which is reflected in writing: the child writes words the way he pronounces them.

It is known that at the initial stages of mastering writing a child

He often pronounces the words he writes down. Speaking can be loud, whispered or internal. In the process of pronunciation, the sound structure of the word and the nature of the sounds are clarified.

A child who has a problem with sound pronunciation records it in writing.

According to R.E. Levina, G.A. Kashe et al., pronunciation deficiencies are reflected in writing only when they are accompanied by a violation of auditory differentiation and immature phonemic representations.

Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia manifests itself in confusions, substitutions, omissions of letters, which correspond to mixtures, substitutions, and absence of sounds in oral speech. This type of dysgraphia is predominantly observed in children with polymorphic sound pronunciation disorders, especially with dysarthria, rhinolalia, sensory and sensorimotor dyslalia.

In a number of cases, letter substitutions in writing persist in children even after sound substitutions in oral speech have been eliminated. The reason for this is the immaturity of kinesthetic images of sounds; during internal pronunciation, there is no reliance on the correct articulation of sounds.

It should be noted that disturbances in sound pronunciation are not always reflected in writing, especially in cases where the auditory differentiation of sounds is well formed, and the replacement of sounds in oral speech is due to insufficiency of articulatory motor skills.

Dysgraphia based on impaired phoneme recognition

(phoneme differentiation)

According to traditional terminology – acoustic dysgraphia.

This type of dysgraphia manifests itself in substitutions of letters denoting phonetically similar sounds, in violation of the designation of soft consonants in writing. More often, letters are mixed in letters denoting whistling and hissing, voiced and unvoiced, affricates and the components that make up them (h-t, ch-sch, ts-t, ts-s, s-sh, z-zh, b- p, d-t, g-k, etc.), as well as vowels o-u, e-i.

Most often, the mechanism of this type of dysgraphia is associated with inaccurate auditory differentiation of sounds, while the pronunciation of sounds is normal (more subtle auditory differentiation is required than for oral speech).

In other cases, children with this form of dysgraphia have inaccurate kinesthetic images of sounds, which prevents the correct selection of a phoneme and its correlation with a letter.

Dysgraphia due to impairment of language analysis and synthesis

The mechanism of this type of dysgraphia is a violation of the following forms of language analysis and synthesis:

Analysis of sentences into words, syllabic and phonemic analysis and synthesis.

The lack of structure in the analysis of sentences into words is revealed in the continuous spelling of words, especially prepositions;

In separate writing of words; especially prefixes and roots.

Pr-r: Letam parekhe and blow parhodi.

The most common errors in this type of dysgraphia are distortion of the sound-letter structure of a word, caused by underdevelopment of phonemic analysis, which is the most complex form of sound analysis.

The most common mistakes:

Omissions of consonants when they coincide (dozhi-rain, deki-denki)

Vowel omissions (girls-girls, go-go, dot-dot)

Letter permutations (doll-doll, droplets-droplets)

Adding letters (spring-spring)

Omissions, additions, rearrangements of syllables (bicycle-bicycle).

Agrammatic dysgraphia

It manifests itself in writing and is caused by the immaturity of the lexico-grammatical structure of speech.

Agrammatisms in writing differ at the level of words, phrases, sentences and text. Most often, children with dysgraphia exhibit morphological and morphosyntactic agrammatisms and control coordination disorders.

Example: Behind the house (behind the house) there is a barn.

It was a hot day.

Optical dysgraphia

This type of dysgraphia is caused by the immaturity of visual-spatial functions: visual gnosis, visual mnesis, visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations. With optical dysgraphia, the following types of writing disorders are observed:

A) distorted reproduction of letters in writing (incorrect reproduction of the spatial relationship of letter elements, mirror spelling of letters, underwriting of elements, extra elements);

B) replacing and mixing graphically similar letters.

As with dyslexia, most often mixed up are either letters that differ in one element (P-T, L-M, I-Sh), or letters consisting of the same or similar elements, but differently located in space (V-D, E- WITH).

One of the manifestations of optical dysgraphia is mirror writing: mirror writing of letters, writing from left to right, which can be observed in left-handed people with organic brain damage.

Optical dysgraphia is divided into literal and verbal.

Literal dysgraphia manifests itself in difficulties in reproducing even isolated letters.

In verbal dysgraphia, the reproduction of isolated letters is intact. However, when writing words, distortions of letters, substitutions and confusions of graphically similar letters, and contextual influences of neighboring letters on the reproduction of the visual image of the letter are noted.

Conclusion

A speech therapist is not a teacher’s understudy or a tutor; while performing his main job of correcting children’s speech defects, he must create a platform for students to successfully master and correctly apply grammatical rules, i.e. to lead students to an understanding of grammatical rules, on the one hand, and on the other, to consolidate the educational material given by the teacher related to the correctional process.

The main task is to develop children's linguistic sense.

The relationship between correctional and teaching processes contributes to students’ successful acquisition of material in their native language as a whole.

Dysgraphia - how to help your child?

Children with dysgraphia can fully master writing, provided they continue to study diligently. For some, months of study are enough, for others it will take years. Exercises letter vision and speech hearing.

You should definitely contact a speech therapist: the speech therapist uses all kinds of games, works on the differences in pronunciations from hard to soft. You also need to contact a neuropsychiatrist who will recommend medications that improve metabolism and memory. Dysgraphia needs to be overcome, but only through the common efforts of parents, speech therapist, and neuropsychiatrist.

Parents can help their child overcome dysgraphia if they conduct classes with him according to the following method: for 5 minutes the child will cross out these letters. You can start with vowels, then move on to consonants. You can underline, cross out, circle letters.

You can also practice with paired consonants if your child has problems distinguishing them. As you practice, the quality of your writing improves. The purpose of the subsequent task is to allow the child to personally check his mistakes. To do this, give him an eraser and a pencil. Dictate a not very large text of 1000 characters. Errors do not need to be corrected in the text. The margins should be marked with a blue pen (do not use a red pen). Give the text to the child to correct. He has the ability to erase mistakes and write correctly. The child himself looks for and corrects mistakes, there are no scribbles in the notebook, the notebook is in excellent condition. When a red pen is used, it creates a negative effect - the child begins to worry and make even more mistakes.

It is also necessary to implement the following conditions: let the child feel interest and success; threes and twos discourage his desire to master writing. Do not control your child's reading speed. When he can only read 30 words per minute and the other 200, don't scold him for it, otherwise he will become restless and stutter, and may not read the text at all. Traditionally, the following check is carried out at school: the child is asked to go to the board, an hourglass is set, the teacher looks at the child and notes the time, leads along the line with a pencil, and measures the reading speed. And if the test is carried out by a teacher, then the child begins to worry even more. Children with dysgraphia may develop neurosis as a result of such exams.

For children with dysgraphia, it is not quantity, but quality that is very important. It is necessary to first develop oral speech and then writing. The main thing is not to get angry with your parents, not to get excited, and not to get too excited. Confidence in success, your endurance, and a harmonious state are the key to excellent results. Dysgraphia in children is difficult to overcome; coordinated work is required between the child, his parents, a psychoneurologist, and a speech therapist; only common work and patience, the child’s desire to master writing, will solve the problem of illiteracy in written speech.

There are different types of dysgraphia and they are all overcome in different ways, which is due to their different causation. But at the same time, there are a number of fundamentally important provisions, the consideration of which is necessary to successfully overcome any type of dysgraphia. We consider it necessary to draw the reader’s attention to two such provisions.

Firstly, work on overcoming dysgraphia of any kind should never begin directly with exercises in writing, with attempts to eliminate errors in it - this will not give the desired result. First, it is necessary to normalize those operations that prepare the writing process and without the proper level of formation of which writing, in principle, cannot proceed normally. So, for example, if a child with acoustic dysgraphia does not distinguish certain sounds by ear and therefore makes corresponding letter substitutions in writing, then it is useless to practice writing without first teaching him to distinguish sounds. It's the same with all other types of dysgraphia. What is the point of conducting endless dictations with a child who does not understand the analysis of speech flow or is not able to distinguish letters of similar shape? These will only be exercises in incorrect writing, and nothing more.

Secondly, in the process of aligning the “sinking links” you should go around and rely as much as possible on the preserved functions. For example, if a child does not distinguish between the sounds S and Sh by ear, then at first you can draw his attention to the different positions of the lips and tongue when pronouncing these sounds, that is, rely on vision and the kinesthetic sense (the sense of the position of the articulatory organs). When letters cannot be distinguished by their appearance (visual analysis and synthesis are not formed), they often resort to writing letters in the air with their vision turned off, i.e. to rely on the motor analyzer, etc. These techniques are well known to speech therapists and are very widely used by them, which is also useful for teachers and parents to keep in mind.

It is important to take into account one more circumstance. Sometimes in children who make dysgraphic errors, it is not possible to identify violations of any specific writing operations (failure to distinguish sounds, failure to recognize letters, difficulties in analyzing the speech flow, etc.). For this reason, it may seem that there is no basis for dysgraphia here. Such cases have their own explanation. Writing is a complex speech activity that includes a number of operations at various levels that must be carried out simultaneously. Thus, in the process of writing words, a child must be able to distinguish all the sounds that make them up, correlate these sounds with certain letters, while choosing the appropriate letter signs and translating visual images of letters into motor ones, as well as determine the sequence of sounds in a word, not to mention the need to comply graphic norms and at least the most basic grammatical rules. It is difficult for a child to coordinate all these operations, it is difficult to distribute his attention between them, performing all of them synchronously and at the same time switching from one operation to another in a timely manner. Therefore, it is not surprising that a child who successfully copes with each individual operation cannot perform all of them at the same time, which leads to dysgraphic errors. However, this impossibility of combining all the necessary writing operations is still more typical for children with insufficient fluency in each of them separately.

Causes of dysgraphia.

Dysgraphia is not considered as an independent disease; it is more often classified as a symptom of various encephalopitic neurological dysfunctions and disorders. Dysgraphia is often assessed as the effect of pathologies in the analytical and synthetic functioning of the motor, auditory, speech, and visual analyzers. A child who suffers from dysgraphia does not fully have the ability to synthesize and analyze various information.

Based on this, dysgraphia can be classified into motor, acoustic and optical.

There is also another point of view, which recognizes that dysgraphia is a language disorder that can be eliminated by special psychological and pedagogical methods.

Dysgraphia – what does it look like in practice?

With dysgraphia, children do not use capital letters, and their dictations include a lot of errors. When writing, children use short phrases with a small vocabulary. Children are afraid that they will be scolded, and as a result they refuse to go to Russian language lessons or complete assignments. Children with dysgraphia feel that everyone is laughing at them, that they are inferior, and may often be in a state of depression.

A child with dysgraphia confuses the letters: Z, E; R and L. Such children write dictations unevenly, slowly, and if they are upset about something, their handwriting is completely impossible to distinguish. It is also necessary to understand that errors that were made due to ignorance of the rules of grammar are not dysgraphia.

If a child has hearing impairment, it is difficult for him to learn to write and read. It is difficult for him to master written speech, since he is not able to determine what sound this or that letter means. The rapid flow of speech completely disorients the baby. Teaching literacy to a child who has speech hearing impairments is not an easy pedagogical task.

To learn writing, a child must have a satisfactory intellectual level, speech hearing, and remember how letters are written. Uneven formation of the cerebral hemispheres can also be a prerequisite for dysgraphia. The speech center is located in the left hemisphere. The right hemisphere is responsible for the correct understanding of images and symbols. A child with dysraphia has great difficulty learning to write, but draws well. The inability to acquire language does not prevent these children from “speaking” through drawing.

Parents should pay attention to the specular slope of the reflection of the letters. Letters can be flipped the other way. The factor of heredity plays a special role when underformed brain structures are inherited by a child.

Dysgraphia can also be caused by bilingualism in the family. Many families leave their homeland, move, and learn another language.

How to detect dysgraphia?

Dysgraphia is determined by the presence of “peculiar errors”: the child may skip syllables, letters, words, rearrange them, shift and change letters, and does not recognize letters that are similar in style. Violation of word agreement, sentence construction, connections in a sentence.

Classification of dysgraphia

Classification of dysgraphia is carried out on the basis of various criteria:

Taking into account impaired analyzers, mental functions, immaturity

Letter operations.

O. A. Tokareva identifies 3 types of dysgraphia: acoustic, optical, motor.

In acoustic dysgraphia, there is undifferentiation of the auditory

Perception, insufficient development of sound analysis and synthesis. Frequent

There are confusions and omissions, substitutions of letters denoting sounds similar in

Articulation and sound, as well as reflection of incorrect sound pronunciation on

Optical dysgraphia is caused by instability of visual impressions and

Submissions. Individual letters are not recognized and do not correlate with certain

With sounds. At different moments, letters are perceived differently. Due to

Inaccuracies in visual perception are mixed up in writing. Most often

Mixtures of the following handwritten letters are observed:

In severe cases of optical dysgraphia, writing words is impossible. The child writes

Only individual letters. In some cases, especially in left-handed people, there is

Mirror writing, when words, letters, letter elements are written from right to left.

Motor dysgraphia. It is characterized by difficulty moving the arm during

Letters, disruption of the connection of motor images of sounds and words with visual images.

Contemporary psychological and psycholinguistic study of the writing process

Evidence that it is a complex form of speech activity,

Including a large number of operations at various levels: semantic,

Linguistic, sensorimotor. In this regard, the identification of types of dysgraphia based on

Analyzer-level violations are currently not enough

Reasonable.

The types of dysgraphia identified by M. E. Khvattsev also do not satisfy today’s

Representation of writing disorders. Let's look at them

1. Dysgraphia due to acoustic agnosia and phonemic hearing defects.

In this type, cheating is safe.

The physiological mechanism of the defect is a violation of associative connections

Between vision and hearing, there are omissions, rearrangements, substitutions of letters, and

Also merging two words into one, missing words, etc.

This type is based on undifferentiated auditory perception

The sound composition of a word, insufficiency of phonemic analysis.

Impaired differentiation of sounds and impaired phonemic analysis and

Synthesis.

2. Dysgraphia due to oral speech disorders (“graphic

Tongue-tied"). According to M.E. Khvattsev, it arises on the basis of incorrect

Sound pronunciations. Replacement of some sounds with others, absence of sounds in

Pronunciations cause corresponding substitutions and omissions of sounds in the letter. M.E.

Khvattsev also identifies a special form due to “experienced” tongue-tiedness (when

The sound pronunciation disorder disappeared before the start of literacy training or after the start

mastering writing). The more severe the pronunciation disorder, the

Writing errors are more rude and varied. The identification of this type of dysgraphia is recognized

Justified to this day.

3. Dysgraphia due to impaired pronunciation rhythm. M. E. Khvattsev

Believes that as a result of a disorder of pronunciation rhythm in writing

Omissions of vowels, syllables, and endings appear. Errors may be due to

Either by underdevelopment of phonemic analysis and synthesis, or by distortions

Sound-syllable structure of the word.

4. Optical dysgraphia. Caused by impairment or underdevelopment

Optical speech systems in the brain. The formation of visual vision is disrupted

The image of a letter, a word. With literal dysgraphia, the child’s visual

An image of a letter, distortions and replacements of isolated letters are observed. With verbal

Dysgraphic writing of isolated letters is intact, but with difficulty

A visual image of the word is formed, the child writes words with gross errors.

With optical dysgraphia, the child does not distinguish between similar graphically handwritten

Letters: p - k, p. - i, s - o, i - sh, l - m.

5. Dysgraphia in motor and sensory aphasia manifests itself in substitutions,

Distortions of the structure of words, sentences and is caused by the breakdown of oral speech

Due to organic brain damage.

The most reasonable classification of dysgraphia is based on

Lack of formation of certain operations of the writing process (developed

Employees of the Department of Speech Therapy of Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute named after. A.I. Herzen). The following stand out:

Can be replenished due to redundancy, due to those fixed in speech experience

Motor stereotypes, kinesthetic images. In the process of writing for

Correct discrimination and selection of phonemes requires a subtle analysis of all

Acoustic features of sound that are meaningful and distinctive.

On the other hand, in the process of writing, differentiation of sounds, selection of phonemes

Carried out on the basis of trace activity, auditory images,

Presentation. Due to the vagueness of auditory ideas about phonetically

In close sounds, the choice of one or another phoneme is difficult, resulting in

Writing disorders in mentally retarded children are associated with letter substitutions due to the fact that

In phonemic recognition, children rely on articulatory signs of sounds and

Auditory control is not used.

In contrast to these studies, R. Becker and A. Kossovsky main

The mechanism for replacing letters denoting phonetically similar sounds is considered

Difficulties of kinesthetic analysis. Their research shows that children with

Dysgraphia does not make enough use of kinesthetic sensations (pronunciation)

While writing. Pronunciation helps them little, as during auditory

Dictation and independent writing. Elimination of pronunciation (method

L.K. Nazarova) does not affect the number of errors, i.e. does not lead to them

Increase. At the same time, eliminating pronunciation while writing in children

Without dysgraphia, it leads to an 8-9 times increase in errors in writing.

Underdevelopment, with unformed ideas about the phoneme, with a violation

Phoneme selection operations (R. E. Levina, L. F. Spirova).

Correct writing requires a sufficient level of functioning of all

Operations of the process of discrimination and selection of phonemes. If any link is broken

(auditory, kinesthetic analysis, phoneme selection operation, auditory and

kinesthetic control) the whole process of phonemic

Recognition, which manifests itself in the replacement of letters in a letter. Therefore, taking into account

The following subtypes of impaired phoneme recognition operations can be distinguished:

This form of dysgraphia: acoustic, kinesthetic, phonemic.

3. Dysgraphia due to a violation of language analysis and synthesis. At its core

There lies a violation of various forms of linguistic analysis and synthesis: division of sentences

On words, syllabic and phonemic analysis and synthesis. Underdevelopment of language

Analysis and synthesis manifests itself in writing in distortions of word structure and

Offers. The most complex form of language analysis is phonemic

Analysis. As a result, dysgraphia is especially common in this type of

There will be distortions in the sound-letter structure of the word.

The most common errors are: omission of consonants when they are combined

(dictation - “dikat”, school - “kola”); vowel omissions (dog

- “sbaka”, at home - “dma”); permutations of letters (path - “prota”,

Window - “kono”); adding letters (dragged - “tasakali”); omissions,

Additions, rearrangement of syllables (room - “cat”, glass -

For proper mastery of the writing process, it is necessary that the phonemic

The analysis was formed in the child not only in external, speech, but also in

Internally, according to presentation.

Impaired division of sentences into words in this type of dysgraphia manifests itself in

Spelling words together, especially prepositions, with other words (it’s raining

- “you’re going”, in the house - “in the house”); separate spelling of the word (white

A birch tree grows by the window - “belabe zaratet oka”); separate writing

Prefixes and root words (stepped - “stepped on”).

Writing disorders due to immaturity of phonemic analysis and

Synthesis is widely represented in the works of R. E. Levina, N. A. Nikashina, D. I.

Orlova, G.V. Chirkina.

Writing disorders create significant barriers to literacy acquisition and lead to learning difficulties.

Traditionally, in speech therapy practice, disorders of written speech are considered as a consequence of oral pathology (R.E. Levina, A.V. Yastrebova, L.F. Spirova, O.A. Tokareva, etc.). Research in recent years indicates a close relationship between writing difficulties in younger schoolchildren and the immaturity of non-verbal forms of mental processes (T.V. Akhutina, A.N. Kornev, etc.). Thus, one of the components in the formation of writing skills is optical-spatial perception.

According to many experts, there is not a single type of children’s activity that is not influenced by spatial orientation. It is a complex activity that involves both the right and left hemispheres. Basic, early-forming functions are associated primarily with the work of the right hemisphere. Visual-motor coordination, the ability to correlate movement with vertical and horizontal coordinates, combine parts and remember their location depend on it. The left hemisphere solves more complex problems associated with subtle analysis and speech mediation. It analyzes details, parts and is not so successful in combining them.

Dysgraphia is a partial specific disorder of the writing process. Writing is a complex form of speech activity, a multi-level process. Various analyzers take part in it: speech-auditory, speech-motor, visual, general motor. In the process of writing, a close connection and interdependence is established between them. The structure of this process is determined by the stage of mastery of the skill, tasks and nature of writing. Writing is closely related to the process of oral speech and is carried out only on the basis of a sufficiently high level of its development. The writing process of an adult is automatic and differs from the nature of the writing of a child mastering this skill. Thus, for an adult, writing is a purposeful activity, the main goal of which is to convey meaning or fix it. The writing process of an adult is characterized by integrity, coherence, and is a synthetic process. The graphic image of a word is reproduced not by individual elements (letters), but as a whole. The word is reproduced as a single motor act. The writing process is automated and occurs under dual control: kinesthetic and visual.

One of the most complex operations in the writing process is the analysis of the sound structure of a word. To write a word correctly, you need to determine its sound structure, the sequence and place of each sound. The sound analysis of a word is carried out by the joint activity of the speech-auditory and speech-motor analyzers. Pronunciation plays a major role in determining the nature of sounds and their sequence in a word: loud, whispered or internal. The role of speaking in the writing process is evidenced by many studies. Thus, L.K. Nazarova conducted the following experiment with children of the first grade. In the first episode, they are given accessible text to write. In the second series, a text of similar difficulty was given with the exception of pronunciation: the children bit the tip of their tongue or opened their mouth while writing. In this case, they made many times more mistakes than with normal writing.

The next operation is the correlation of a phoneme isolated from a word with a certain visual image of a letter, which must be differentiated from all others, especially from graphically similar ones. To distinguish graphically similar letters, a sufficient level of development of visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations is required. Analyzing and comparing letters is not an easy task for a first grader.

Then follows the motor operation of the writing process - reproduction of the visual image of the letter using hand movements. Simultaneously with the movement of the hand, kinesthetic control is carried out. As letters and words are written, kinesthetic control is reinforced by visual control and reading what is written. The writing process is normally carried out on the basis of a sufficient level of formation of certain speech and non-speech functions: auditory differentiation of sounds, their correct pronunciation, language analysis and synthesis, formation of the lexical and grammatical side of speech, visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations.

The lack of development of any of these functions can cause a disruption in the process of mastering writing, dysgraphia.

Dysgraphia is caused by underdevelopment (decay) of higher mental functions that carry out the normal writing process.

The following terms are mainly used to refer to writing disorders: dysgraphia, agraphia, dysorthography, evolutionary dysgraphia.

The causes of reading and writing disorders are similar.

Children with dysgraphia have undeveloped many higher mental functions: visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations, auditory-pronunciation differentiation of speech sounds, phonemic, syllabic analysis and synthesis, dividing sentences into words, lexico-grammatical structure of speech, memory disorders, attention, successive and simultaneous processes, emotional-volitional sphere.

Classification of dysgraphia is carried out on the basis of various criteria: taking into account impaired analyzers, mental functions, immaturity of writing operations.

O.A. Tokareva identifies 3 types of dysgraphia: acoustic, optical, motor.

Acoustic dysgraphia is characterized by undifferentiated auditory perception and insufficient development of sound analysis and synthesis. Frequent are confusions and omissions, substitutions of letters denoting sounds that are similar in articulation and sound, as well as the reflection of incorrect sound pronunciation in writing.

Optical dysgraphia is caused by instability of visual impressions and ideas. Individual letters are not recognized and do not correspond to certain sounds. At different moments, letters are perceived differently. Due to inaccuracy of visual perception, they are mixed in writing. The most common mixtures of the following handwritten letters are:

In severe cases of optical dysgraphia, writing words is impossible. The child writes only individual letters. In some cases, especially among left-handers, mirror writing occurs, when words, letters, and letter elements are written from right to left.

Motor dysgraphia. It is characterized by difficulties in moving the hand while writing, and a disruption in the connection of motor images of sounds and words with visual images.

Modern psychological and psycholinguistic studies of the writing process indicate that it is a complex form of speech activity, including a large number of operations at various levels: semantic, linguistic, sensorimotor. In this regard, the identification of types of dysgraphia based on violations of the analytical level is currently insufficiently substantiated.

Selected M.E. Khvattsev’s types of dysgraphia also do not satisfy today’s understanding of writing disorders. Let's look at them

1. Dysgraphia due to acoustic agnosia and phonemic hearing defects. In this type, cheating is safe.

The physiological mechanism of the defect is a violation of associative connections between vision and hearing; omissions, rearrangements, substitutions of letters are observed, as well as the merging of two words into one, omissions of words, etc.

This type is based on undifferentiated auditory perception of the sound composition of a word and insufficient phonemic analysis.

2. Dysgraphia due to oral speech disorders (“graphic tongue-tiedness”). According to M.E. Khvattsev, it arises due to incorrect sound pronunciation. The replacement of some sounds with others, the absence of sounds in pronunciation cause corresponding replacements and omissions of sounds in writing. M.E. Khvattsev also identifies a special form due to “experienced” tongue-tiedness (when the violation of sound pronunciation disappeared before the start of learning to read and write or after the start of mastering writing). The more severe the pronunciation disorder, the more severe and varied the writing errors. The identification of this type of dysgraphia is recognized as justified at the present time.

3. Dysgraphia due to impaired pronunciation rhythm. M.E. Khvattsev believes that as a result of a disorder of pronunciation rhythm, omissions of vowels, syllables, and endings appear in writing. Errors can be caused either by underdevelopment of phonemic analysis and synthesis, or by distortions of the sound-syllable structure of the word.

4. Optical dysgraphia. Caused by disruption or underdevelopment of optical speech systems in the brain. The formation of a visual image of a letter or word is disrupted. With literal dysgraphia, the child’s visual image of the letter is disrupted, distortions and substitutions of isolated letters are observed. With verbal dysgraphia, the writing of isolated letters is intact, but it is difficult to form a visual image of the word, and the child writes words with gross errors.

With optical dysgraphia, the child does not distinguish graphically similar handwritten letters: p - k, p. - i, s - o, i - sh, l - m.

5. Dysgraphia in motor and sensory aphasia manifests itself in substitutions and distortions of the structure of words and sentences and is caused by the disintegration of oral speech due to organic damage to the brain.

The most reasonable is the classification of dysgraphia, which is based on the immaturity of certain operations of the writing process (developed by employees of the Department of Speech Therapy of the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute named after A. I. Herzen). The following types of dysgraphia are distinguished: articulatory-acoustic, based on violations of phoneme recognition (differentiation of phonemes), based on violations of language analysis and synthesis, agrammatic and optical dysgraphia.

1. Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia is in many ways similar to that identified by M.E. Khvattsev dysgraphia due to oral speech disorders.

The child writes as he pronounces. It is based on the reflection of incorrect pronunciation in writing, relying on incorrect pronunciation. Relying on incorrect pronunciation of sounds during the pronunciation process, the child reflects his defective pronunciation in writing.

Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia manifests itself in substitutions and omissions of letters corresponding to substitutions and omissions of sounds in oral speech. Most often observed with dysarthria, rhinolalia, dyslalia of a polymorphic nature. Sometimes letter substitutions remain in writing even after they are eliminated in spoken language. In this case, it can be assumed that during internal pronunciation there is not sufficient support for correct articulation, since clear kinesthetic images of sounds have not yet been formed. But replacements and omissions of sounds are not always reflected in the writing. This is due to the fact that in some cases compensation occurs due to preserved functions (for example, due to clear auditory differentiation, due to the formation of phonemic functions).

2. Dysgraphia based on disorders of phoneme recognition (phoneme differentiation). According to traditional terminology, this is acoustic dysgraphia.

Manifests itself in substitutions of letters corresponding to phonetically similar sounds. At the same time, in oral speech, sounds are pronounced correctly. Most often, letters denoting the following sounds are replaced: whistling and hissing, voiced and voiceless, affricates and the components that make up them (ch - t, ch - sch, ts - t, ts - s). This type of dysgraphia is also manifested in the incorrect designation of soft consonants in writing due to a violation of the differentiation of hard and soft consonants (“pismo”, “lubit”, “lizha”). Frequent mistakes are the replacement of vowels even in the stressed position, for example, o - y (tuma - “point”), e - and (les - “fox”).

In its most striking form, dysgraphia based on impaired phoneme recognition is observed in sensory alalia and aphasia. In severe cases, letters denoting distant articulatory and acoustic sounds (l - k, b - v, p - k) are mixed. In this case, the pronunciation of sounds corresponding to the mixed letters is normal.

There is no consensus on the mechanisms of this type of dysgraphia. This is due to the complexity of the phoneme recognition process.

3. Dysgraphia due to a violation of language analysis and synthesis. It is based on a violation of various forms of language analysis and synthesis: dividing sentences into words, syllabic and phonemic analysis and synthesis. The underdevelopment of language analysis and synthesis manifests itself in writing in distortions of the structure of words and sentences. The most complex form of language analysis is phonemic analysis. As a result, distortions of the sound-letter structure of words will be especially common in this type of dysgraphia.

The most typical errors are: omissions of consonants when they are combined (dictation - “dikat”, school - “kola”); vowel omissions (dog - “sbaka”, home - “dma”); permutations of letters (path - “prota”, window - “kono”); adding letters (dragged - “tasakali”); omissions, additions, rearrangement of syllables (room - “kota”, glass - “kata”).

For proper mastery of the writing process, it is necessary that the child’s phonemic analysis be formed not only externally, in speech, but also internally, in terms of representation.

Violation of the division of sentences into words in this type of dysgraphia manifests itself in the continuous spelling of words, especially prepositions, with other words (it is raining - “Idedosh”, in the house - “in the house”); separate spelling of the word (a white birch tree grows near the window - “belabe zaratet oka”); separate writing of the prefix and the root of the word (stepped - “stepped on”).

Writing disorders due to immaturity of phonemic analysis and synthesis are widely represented in the works of R.E. Levina, N.A. Nikashina, D.I. Orlova, G.V. Chirkina.

4. Agrammatic dysgraphia (characterized in the works of R.E. Levina, I.K. Kolpovskaya, R.I. Lalaeva, S.B. Yakovlev). It is associated with underdevelopment of the grammatical structure of speech: morphological, syntactic generalizations. This type of dysgraphia can manifest itself at the level of words, phrases, sentences and texts and is part of a broader symptom complex - lexico-grammatical underdevelopment, which is observed in children with dysarthria, alalia and the mentally retarded.

In coherent written speech, children show great difficulties in establishing logical and linguistic connections between sentences. The sequence of sentences does not always correspond to the sequence of events described; semantic and grammatical connections between individual sentences are broken.

At the sentence level, agrammatisms in writing manifest themselves in distortion of the morphological structure of the word, replacement of prefixes, suffixes (overwhelmed - “overwhelmed”, goats - “kids”); changing case endings (“many trees”); violation of prepositional constructions (above the table - “on the table”); changing the case of pronouns (about him - “about him”); number of nouns (“children are running”); violation of agreement (“white house”); There is also a violation of the syntactic design of speech, which manifests itself in difficulties in constructing complex sentences, omitting sentence members, and violation of the sequence of words in a sentence.

5. Optical dysgraphia is associated with underdevelopment of visual gnosis, analysis and synthesis, spatial representations and manifests itself in substitutions and distortions of letters in writing.

Most often, graphically similar handwritten letters are replaced: consisting of identical elements, but differently located in space

With literary dysgraphia, there is a violation of the recognition and reproduction of even isolated letters. With verbal dysgraphia, isolated letters are reproduced correctly, but when writing a word, distortions and optical substitutions of letters are observed. Optical dysgraphia also includes mirror writing, which is sometimes observed in left-handed people, as well as in cases of organic brain damage.

The ability to write and the process of writing text itself is a complex, inherently psychological process, which psychologists put on a par with such human abilities as speech and perception of information, in its spontaneous and systemic form, as well as human motor abilities.

By the medical term agraphia, doctors mean a disorder in the process of writing itself, caused by, but all movements of the arm and hand are preserved. Intelligence and mental abilities are also fully preserved, as are already acquired writing skills.

The disease itself arises and develops as a result of damage to the patient’s left part of the cerebral cortex in right-handed people or the right hemisphere in left-handed people.

Types of disorders - their features

The following types of agraphia are distinguished:

Pure or amnestic– in this case, the patient experiences a failure in writing, when the text is written under dictation or it is written from an audio original, and when copied, the ability to write is preserved to a greater or lesser extent. Often in its course it is combined with, acting as its vivid symptom, and in a severe form of its course it manifests itself in the mirror spelling of words. In the latter case, a mirror subtype of pure agraphia develops.
Apraxic form of pathology– manifests itself as an independent disease or can be a manifestation of ideation. The child is simply unable to understand how to hold a pen, and subsequent movements do not contribute to the correct writing of letters and words, or their sequence. This form of the disorder is diagnosed in any type of writing, both under oral dictation and when copying text independently.
Aphasic form of the disorder is formed when the left temporal cortex in the structure of the brain is affected, which causes problems with auditory and speech memory, as well as the phonemic type of hearing.
Constructive form of the disorder– develops with a constructive type of pathological changes in the brain.

What parts of the brain are affected?

When the left temporal cortex is damaged in the brain, an aphasic form of pathology develops, which provokes a violation of the auditory-verbal type of memory and damage to the phonemic type of hearing.

If disturbances are diagnosed in the functioning of the posterior sections of the 2nd frontal gyrus, located in the patient’s dominant hemisphere, then doctors diagnose a pure form of agraphia, not associated with other pathologies and diseases.

If the patient writes in a mirror order, a mirror subtype of the disorder develops, and this form of pathology is most often diagnosed in left-handed people, in intellectually retarded patients, when there is a failure in the interaction between the hemispheres of the brain.

Dysgraphia is a special case of agraphia

The symptoms of the pathology may vary - it depends on the root cause of the disease. Children diagnosed with dysgraphia are smart, with a high level of intelligence, they can do well in other school subjects, but they make a lot of mistakes in their notebooks, confusing the spelling of letters such as R and Z, E and Ъ.

Where to look for the reason?

Doctors call the main reason that provokes the development of agraphia.

The following factors can also provoke this disorder:

or development or;
negative effects of toxins on the body and brain;
inflammatory processes provoked.

Often the cause of the development of this pathology is birth trauma - at a younger age, the child cannot speak, does not learn to write, at an older age, a failure in written speech is combined with an inability to express his thoughts through oral speech.

Also, a failure in the ability to write can also be a sign of the development of another pathology, the course of the underlying disease, for example, with the development of - this disorder indicates the development of a lesion on the border of the temporal and parietal lobes of the brain. In children or adults, phonemic perception of information and its interpretation into graphic symbols are impaired.

As medical statistics show, agraphia most often affects children who have underdeveloped oral speech and whose language and vocabulary development has not reached their age level of development.

Let's complete the clinical picture

The most striking manifestation of the disease is the complete and irreversible loss of the ability to write. There is a strong disturbance in the structure of the word itself, letters are missing, the patient is not able to connect syllables, but the intellect remains unaffected, and previously developed writing skills are not impaired.

A child or an adult cannot write a text from dictation or simply rewrite it from the original; the mirror placement of letters, words and entire sentences manifests itself.

Establishing diagnosis

The process of diagnosing the disorder itself is not difficult. At the very beginning, the doctor conducts a detailed examination of the patient, conducts, and studies an example of the patient’s text. In practice, it is more difficult to diagnose the root cause that leads to the development of this disease.

First, the brain is examined and the lesion is identified and, as a result, the cause of the disorder. To do this, the doctor conducts a survey of the patient and parents, if it is a child, then additional methods of neurological examination are used - or an X-ray examination of the skull.

Doctors also use it in the diagnostic process.

Treatment and correction

First of all, the patient is registered with a neurologist, prescribed a course of medication, and re-taught writing skills using a specially developed program.

In it, first of all, the goal is to overcome inertia in the links responsible for the structure of the syllable, the choice of words and the restoration of all language functions, speech - both its written and oral forms. With adults and children, specialists conduct both individual and group lessons; this is the only way to achieve a positive effect.

The patient is monitored by a psychiatrist and speech therapist, where he undergoes a course of psychiatry and speech therapy lessons. As an example, rhythmic exercises will help restore the functioning of the cerebral cortex.

Exercise therapy also has a positive effect on the level of mental development of the patient, since the relationship between movement, physical and motor activity and mental training of a particular affected part of the brain has been scientifically proven.

Music and singing help develop motor skills of the vocal cords, muscles and ligaments of the larynx. Playing musical instruments helps develop finger motor skills, which also has a beneficial effect on the functioning of the cerebral hemispheres.

The treatment is carried out by a speech therapist - logo-rhythms and musical exercises have the most positive results in the treatment of agraphia.

The main thing is that when you first experience problems with writing, you should not start the disease, but you should consult a specialist. Among them are a speech therapist or a neurologist, a psychotherapist. You should never take risks and you need to consult a doctor in a timely manner. This is the only way to eliminate the pathology in a timely manner.

According to statistics, 60% of children have speech disorders. Every year in preschool institutions the number of children who have certain oral speech disorders, expressed to a greater or lesser extent, increases. By carrying out special correctional and pedagogical work with preschoolers, in many cases it is possible to prevent or prevent the development of speech pathology in the future. However, not all preschool children, for various reasons, are covered by this work. As a result, some children of primary school age have various difficulties in mastering written language, which in turn lead to a delay in mastering the school curriculum.

According to I. N. Sadovnikova, “the problem of impaired written speech among schoolchildren is one of the most pressing, since it (written speech) becomes the basis and means of further learning.”

Written speech includes writing and reading as equal components.

Reading is one of the types of speech activity, closely related to both pronunciation and understanding of what is being read (L. F., Spirova). The perception and discrimination of letters is only the external side of the reading process, behind which the most essential and basic actions with the sounds of the language are hidden ( D. B. Elkonin)

Writing is a symbolic system for recording speech, which allows, with the help of graphic elements, to transmit information at a distance and consolidate it in time. Writing is understood as a means of capturing a person’s thoughts using specially created symbols.

Disorders of written speech are called dysgraphia and dyslexia.

Dyslexia is a partial specific disorder of the reading process, caused by the immaturity (impairment) of higher mental functions and manifested in repeated persistent errors.

Dysgraphia is a partial disorder in the formation of the writing process, causing persistent specific errors, the occurrence of which is not associated with ignorance of grammatical rules, but is caused by underdevelopment or partial damage to the brain mechanisms that provide the complex multi-level process of written speech.

Reading and writing errors should not be considered ridiculous and explained by the students’ personal qualities: inability to listen to the teacher’s explanation, inattention when writing, careless attitude to work, etc. In fact, these errors are based on more serious reasons.

To understand the mechanisms of occurrence of these disorders, it is necessary to have an idea of what controls the processes of reading and writing. Written speech is formed only in the conditions of targeted training; its mechanisms develop during the period of learning to read and write and are improved during all further training.

It is closely related to the process of oral speech and is carried out only on the basis of a sufficiently high level of its development. Mastering written language is the establishment of new connections between the audible and spoken word, and the visible and written word. This is a multi-level process in which various analyzers take part: speech motor (providing the perception and analysis of information from the speech apparatus, i.e. perception and analysis of the article, and organizing the preparation and execution of speech movements, visual (providing the perception and analysis of visual stimuli, namely controls the selection and recognition of graphemes, speech-auditory (provides the perception of phonemes as acoustic stimuli and the perception of the semantic content of an utterance in oral speech, general motor (with its help the grapheme is translated into kineme (a set of certain movements necessary for recording).

Regulation and coordination of the work of these analyzers is carried out in the parieto-occipital-temporal regions of the brain. Normally, at 10-11 years of life, the formation of this process ends. In the frontal regions of the brain, the urge to action arises, that is, the motive for writing and reading, and the work of all structures involved in these processes is monitored. Only with the coordinated work of all analyzers and with the preservation of certain brain structures is it possible to successfully master writing and reading skills.

What reasons underlie the writing problems that teachers most often encounter at school?

Of great importance for mastering the processes of writing and reading is the degree of formation of all aspects of oral speech. Therefore, disturbances or delays in the development of phonemic hearing and perception, the lexico-grammatical aspect of speech, and sound pronunciation at different stages of development are one of the main causes of dysgraphia and dyslexia.

The hereditary factor is also important, when the child is transmitted to the underformation of brain structures, their qualitative immaturity. In this case, as a result of difficulties in cortical control when mastering written speech, the child may experience approximately the same difficulties as parents at school age.

Thus, the source of failures in the development of written speech can be the untimely formation of the lateralization process (establishment of the dominant role of one of the cerebral hemispheres). By the time a child learns to read and write, he should already have a clear lateral orientation and a defined leading hand. When this process is delayed, with hidden forms of left-handedness, cortical control over many types of activity becomes difficult.

The cause of dyslexia and dysgraphia can also be a disorder in the systems that provide spatial and temporal perception.

It happens when reading and writing disorders can be caused by bilingualism in the family.

Also, the reasons for the development of speech disorders in younger schoolchildren may be the lack of formation of voluntary forms of activity, insufficient development of higher mental processes, as well as instability of the emotional sphere and pedagogical neglect.

The first signs of the development of dysgraphia and dyslexia can be noticed by a teacher when teaching a child to read and write. It is necessary to keep in mind the following: all errors that can be classified as dysgraphic and dyslexic are specific, typical and persistent. If a child encounters errors when reading and writing that can be classified as specific, but they are rare, from time to time or even isolated, then this is most likely the result of overwork and inattention. Further observation is needed here. The main manifestations (symptoms) of written speech disorders.

Symptoms of dyslexia

1. Replacement and mixing of sounds when reading, most often phonetically similar sounds (voiced and unvoiced, affricates and sounds included in their composition, as well as replacement of graphically similar letters (X - F, P - N, Z - V).

2. Letter-by-letter reading - a violation of the merging of sounds into syllables and words.

3. Distortion of the sound-syllable structure of a word, which manifests itself in the omission of consonants in the combination of machinist - machinist, in the omission of consonants and vowels in the absence of a combination, additions, rearrangements of sounds, omissions and rearrangements of syllables.

4. Impaired reading comprehension. It manifests itself at the level of an individual word, sentence, text, when no technical disorder is observed during the reading process.

5. Agrammatism when reading. It manifests itself at the analytical-synthetic and synthetic stages of mastering reading skills. There are violations of case endings, agreement between noun and adjective, verb endings, etc.

Symptoms of dysgraphia manifest themselves in persistent and repeated errors in the writing process, which can be grouped as follows.

1. Distortions and substitutions of letters. Such errors are associated with a violation of pronunciation (substitutions of hardness - softness, dullness - sonority, articulatory similarity, as well as replacement of graphically similar letters.

2. Distortion of the sound-syllable structure of a word, which manifests itself in omissions of consonants in the combination machinist - machinist, in omissions of consonants and vowels in the absence of a combination, additions, rearrangements of sounds, omissions and rearrangements of syllables.

3. Violation of the unity of writing of individual words in a sentence: separate writing of parts of a word (prefixes are separated from the word, continuous writing of prepositions with words, shifting the boundaries of the word “at Dedmo Rza” - at Santa Claus.

4. Agrammatisms in writing. Violation of the connection of words: coordination and control.

The teacher needs to convince parents to attend consultations with a speech therapist or speech pathologist and psychologist. Depending on the reasons behind the problems in learning, classes are indicated either with one specialist or with several at the same time. After consultations, if your suspicion is confirmed and the child begins to attend classes with a speech therapist, the class teacher must maintain constant contact with the speech therapist and assist him in his work.

Throughout special classes, the child needs a favorable regime. After numerous twos and threes, unpleasant conversations at home, he should feel at least a little success. Therefore, it is advisable that, at least for a while, the teacher refuses to correct notebooks in red. This, firstly, “noises” the information, which is contained in specific errors, which hinders the teacher. Secondly, for a child suffering from dysgraphia, a solid red background in a notebook is an additional stress factor.

There is a technique in which the student writes with a pencil, and the teacher does not correct the mistake, but puts a note in the margins. The student has the opportunity not to cross out, but to erase his mistakes and write correctly.

When a child makes a lot of mistakes, parents often hear recommendations from teachers to read and write more. And they do them literally. The approach to a child suffering from dyslexia and dysgraphia should be completely different. In the first stages, the work is mainly oral: exercises to develop phonemic perception, sound analysis of words. Dictation will only bring harm here. Numerous mistakes that will inevitably be made when writing them are recorded in the child’s memory. For the same reason, it is not advisable for children with dysgraphia to be given exercises with uncorrected text. And work on errors should be carried out as recommended by the speech therapist. The bottom line is that it is undesirable for a child to see misspelled words.

If you assign homework to read a text or write a lot, advise parents that the child does this not in one sitting, but intermittently, breaking the text into parts. This will enable students with writing difficulties to better cope with their homework.

These are general techniques that will help teachers work with such children, but the teacher can get more detailed advice on the methodology of working with each child from a speech therapist who leads the correction process.

DYGRAPHIA is a partial specific disorder of the writing process.

R.I. Lalaeva: dysgraphia is a partial disruption of the writing process, manifested in persistent, repeated errors due to lack of formation

higher mental functions.

A.N. Kornev: dysgraphia is a persistent inability to master writing skills according to the rules of graphics, despite a sufficient level of intellectual and speech skills

development and absence of gross visual and hearing impairments.

Sadovnikova I.N: dysgraphia is a partial writing disorder, the main symptom of which is the presence of persistent specific errors.

Sirotyuk A.L. : dysgraphia - partial impairment of writing skills with focal lesions, underdevelopment, dysfunction of the cerebral cortex

Highlight:

agraphia - a complete inability to master writing or its loss.

dysgraphia - writing is impaired, but functions as a means of communication.

S.F. Ivanenko identified the following four groups of writing impairments, taking into account the age of the children, the stage of learning to read and write, the severity of the impairments and the specifics of their manifestations.

1. Difficulties in mastering writing. Indicators: fuzzy knowledge of all letters of the alphabet; difficulties when translating a sound into a letter and vice versa, when translating a printed graffeme into a written one; difficulties of sound-letter analysis and synthesis; reading individual syllables with clearly acquired printed signs; writing by dictation of individual letters. Diagnosed in the first half of the first year of study.

Violation of the formation of the writing process. Indicators: mixing written and printed letters according to various characteristics (optical, motor); difficulties in retaining and reproducing semantic letter sequences; difficulty merging letters into syllables and merging syllables into words; reading letter by letter; copying in written letters from printed text is already being carried out, but independent writing is at the stage of formation. Typical mistakes in writing: writing words without vowels, merging several words or splitting them. Diagnosed in the second half of the first and at the beginning of the second year of study.

3. Dysgraphia. Indicators: persistent errors of the same or different types. Diagnosed in the second half of the second year of study.

4. Dysorphography. Indicators: inability to apply spelling rules in writing according to the school curriculum for the corresponding period of study; a large number of spelling errors in written works. Diagnosed in the third year of study.

Etiology:

1) a delay in the formation of functional systems important for writing (visual, motor, auditory), which, in turn, is caused by harmful influences in the prenatal, natal, postnatal period or can be hereditarily determined.

2) violation of oral speech of organic origin.

3) difficulties in developing functional asymmetry of the hemispheres in a child.

4) a delay in the child’s awareness of the body diagram.

5) disturbance of the perception of space and time.

The causes of written speech disorders in children were analyzed in most detail by A.N. Kornev. In the etiology of written speech disorders, the author identifies three groups of phenomena:

1. Constitutional prerequisites: individual characteristics of the formation of functional specialization of the cerebral hemispheres, the presence of written speech disorders in parents, mental illness in relatives.

2. Encephalopathic disorders caused by harmful influences during the periods of pre-, pere- and postnatal development. Damage in the early stages of ontogenesis often causes anomalies in the development of subcortical structures. Later exposure to pathological factors (childbirth and postnatal development) largely affects the higher cortical parts of the brain. Exposure to harmful factors leads to deviations in the development of brain systems. Uneven development of brain structures negatively affects the formation of functional systems of the psyche. Functional immaturity of the right hemisphere can manifest itself in insufficient spatial representations, disruption of the order of reproduction of auditory-verbal and visual standards.

3. Unfavorable social and environmental factors. The author lists these as:

Discrepancy between actual maturity and the onset of literacy learning. The volume and level of literacy requirements not correlated with the child’s capabilities; discrepancy between the methods and pace of teaching and the individual characteristics of the child

Thus, difficulties in mastering writing arise mainly as a result of a combination of three groups of phenomena: biological failure of the brain systems, arising on this basis of functional failure; environmental conditions that place increased demands on developmentally delayed or immature mental functions.

Symptoms:

Lalaeva R.I. identifies the following errors in dysgraphia:

Distorted writing of letters

Replacing handwritten letters that have graphic similarities

Replacing letters denoting phonetically similar sounds

Distortion of the sound-letter structure of words (rearrangements, omissions, addition of letters, syllables)

Distortion of sentence structure (separate spelling of words, combined spelling of words)

Agrammatisms in writing

Sadovnikova I.N. identifies 3 groups of errors:

Errors at the letter and syllable level (sound analysis errors - omissions, rearrangements, insertions; errors in phonemic perception, mixing letters based on kinesthetic similarity)

Errors at the word level (violation of individualization of words - separate spelling of parts of words, combined spelling of parts of several words, shifting word boundaries)

Errors at the sentence level (ungrammaticalisms, lack of marking of sentence boundaries)

Pedagogical classification of dysgraphia by R.I. Lalaeva:

1) articulatory-acoustic

may occur in children who have or have had defects in sound pronunciation. Defective pronunciation of sounds, and if it is overcome, residual defective kinesthetic sensations and ideas cause difficulties in the child’s differentiation of articulatory signs of sound, preventing its successful correlation with the corresponding letter. Children with this type of dysgraphia are observed speaking while writing, which is important for starting to learn to write, is not a full-fledged support for the recognition of sounds and the sound-letter structuring of words (for example: the zuk has fallen and cannot get up, someone will help him).

2) dysgraphia based on impaired phoneme recognition (acoustic)

is associated with an insufficient level of functioning of the operations of the complex process of distinguishing and selecting phonemes. In the event of a violation of any of the operations (auditory analysis, kinesthetic analysis, phoneme selection, auditory and kinesthetic control), the entire process of phoneme recognition suffers. In oral speech, sounds are pronounced correctly, letters appear in the form of mixtures or even complete replacements of letters in the letter (for example: heron-taplya). This type of dysgraphia is also manifested in the incorrect designation of the softness of consonants, due to a violation of the differentiation of hard and soft consonants (for example: loves-lubit). Frequent mistakes are the replacement of vowels, even in the stressed position (for example, cloud-tocha, forest-fox).

3) dysgraphia due to disorders of language analysis and synthesis

different types of these two operations may be defective, that is, dividing a sentence into words and synthesizing sentences from words, syllabic and phonemic analysis and synthesis. In writing, this dysgraphia manifests itself as distortion of the structure of words and sentences, that is, omissions and rearrangements, adding letters, syllables, words, merging or breaking words, the most common errors are: omissions of consonants when they come together (for example: dictation-dicant), omissions of vowels (for example: dog-dog), rearrangements of letters (for example: trail-trapo), adding letters (for example: dragged-taskali), rearrangement of syllables, additions, omissions (for example: room-room), violations of the division of sentences into words, in this type of digraphy manifests itself in the continuous spelling of words, especially prepositions with other words (for example: it’s raining-idedosh), also Characteristic is the separate spelling of the word, the separate spelling of prefixes and the root of the word (for example: on stepped).

4) agrammatic dysgraphia

is associated with underdevelopment of the lexico-grammatical structure of speech in children, lack of formation of morphological and syntactic generalizations. Errors can manifest themselves at the level of words, phrases, sentences and texts, that is, violation of semantic and grammatical connections between sentences, distortion of the morphological structure of words, violation of word agreement, distortion prepositional-case constructions, omissions of sentence members. At the level of sentences, agrammatisms in writing are manifested in distortion of the morphological structure of the word, replacement of prefixes, suffixes (for example: overflowing-overflowing, kittens-kittens), changing case endings (for example: many trees), violation of prepositional constructions, changes in the case of pronouns (for example: about him-about them), errors in the number of nouns (for example: children are running), violation of agreement (for example, white house). There are violations of the syntactic format of speech, which manifests itself in the difficulty of constructing complex sentences, omission members of a sentence, violation of the sequence of words in a sentence.