The locals belong to the Malay community, but with a wide variety of local ethnic groups that flocked here from all over Indonesia in search of work and a better life.
Even if Batam is a multi-ethnic island, it is still Muslim with Malay culture.
Both in life and in ceremonies, religious and mystical elements are used, expressed in music and other forms of culture. Some of the most popular traditional dances are: Jogi Dance, a unique Batam dance, Zapin Dance, which has a strong Arabic influence, Persembahan Dance, which welcomes dear guests, and Ronggen Dance, where guests are invited to join in the dance and song.
The Mak Yong drama is a dance and song performance about a country called "Riuh". The country was ruled by a wise and famous king who, to his surprise and horror, once admitted that his princess had given birth to an animal called "Siput Gondang" (Gondang Snail). Very upset by this, he ordered the newborn to be carried to the jungle. A few years later, he learned that the animal had grown up and was asking to be taken to the royal palace. To his surprise and delight, he saw a beautiful princess whom he named Putri Siput Gondang (Princess Siput Gondang). And the celebrations of this event lasted 7 days and 7 nights.
But other cultures have also been included in the Batam Union, and at the "Padepokan Seni" art center in Sekupang, you can see paintings and handicrafts collected from all over Indonesia, as well as various types of performances that take place every day especially for tourists and visitors. Another arts center in Sekupang is called "Desa Seni". Here the art of the Indonesian village is presented, the main goal of which is to maintain, revive and support the culture of Indonesia, as well as to create a Cultural Institute where qualified instructors will organize various shows and courses.
It is believed that the very first inhabitants of the Indonesian archipelago came from India or Burma. In 1890, fossils of a Pithecanthropus (homo erectus) were found in East Java, approximately 500,000 years old. Later migrants ("Malays") came from southern China and Indochina, and began to inhabit the archipelago around 3000 BC. Powerful groups such as the Buddhist empire of Srivijaya and the Hindu kingdom of Mataram appeared in Java and Sumatra towards the end of the 7th century. The last significant kingdom founded by the Hindus was Majapahit in the 13th century. The subsequent spread of Islam in the archipelago in the 14th century forced the Majapahits to retreat in the 15th century to Bali.
Indonesia includes a full range of diverse societies and cultures. However, education, the media and the policy of nationalism, which was carried out to the fullest by the government, created a certain Indonesian national culture. Indonesia's distinctive cuisine and crafts have taken it to the international stage immediately.
Batik, the art of applying wax to fabric and then creating colorful and dramatic paintings, is carried out throughout Indonesia, with Jakarta in Java as the center of this activity. Other forms of handicrafts are represented by such types as ikat - a fabric of special weaving from decorated threads; songket - silk fabric with gold or silver threads; and chris- artwork often adorned with jewels. Javanese wayang - puppet pieces and gamelan - hypnotic music composed mainly of percussion instruments - are also popular artistic forms.
Most Indonesian cuisine is influenced by the Chinese, but some of the dishes at Padang in Sumatra are truly authentic Indonesian. Wherever you travel in Indonesia, you will see snack vendors such as potatoes, sweet nuts, biscuits or fruits. Rice is the basis of every dish, it is put in soup or served as a side dish, participates in salads and marinades. The variety of tropical fruits would have swooned any European greengrocer. These include creamy apples, durios, guava, jak fruit, mango, papaya, star fruit and rambutans.
Social and religious obligations have, over time, formed a special code of conduct called adat or traditional law. Islam is the predominant religion of the archipelago, it is slightly diluted with elements of Hindu Buddhism, adat and animism. There are hundreds of places in Java where spiritual energy is concentrated, which, according to legend, followers can absorb. Despite the long colonial period, missionary attempts to convert the Indonesian population to Christianity came to nothing.
The culture of Indonesia is original and many-sided; numerous peoples of the country keep traditions rooted in hoary antiquity. These traditions have been developed and enriched over the centuries through encounters with speakers of other cultures: Indians and Arabs, Persians and Chinese, Portuguese, Dutch, British and other peoples. The new cultural values were organically reworked and synthetically included in the complex of cultures of many Indonesian peoples. And although Indonesia is characterized by a very significant cultural diversity, the cultures of individual peoples have many common features, explained by a common origin and similar development conditions.
In Indonesia, two large ethno-cultural regions are distinguished - western and eastern. The first covers the Greater Indian Islands and the island of Bali. It is inhabited by representatives of the South Asian racial group and is distinguished by a significantly higher level of development than the eastern one. Usually, when scholars speak of "original Indonesian culture", they mean a set of common features characteristic of the inhabitants of the western region, where the vast majority of the population is concentrated. This area is characterized by the early development of irrigated agriculture (rice growing), the breeding of bulls and buffaloes, and among non-Muslim peoples - also pigs, a number of common features both in material culture (pile dwellings, boats with a balance beam, similar types of tools) and in social and spiritual (the presence of a tribal and community organization, anim-
Spiritual performances and the cult of ancestors, shadow theater, gamelan orchestra, batiking).
The eastern region occupies the Moluccas, Lesser Sunda Islands and Irian Jaya. It is inhabited by peoples belonging to the East Indonesian and Papuan-Melanesian racial groups. The population of the eastern region grows tubers and extracts sago, it differs markedly in its social organization and spiritual culture from the population of the west of the country. However, in the western part of Indonesia there are enclaves representing the culture of the eastern region, and vice versa.
The peoples of Java and Madura.
Java is called "the heart and brain of the country". Much in Javanese life is typical of any Indonesian. The culture of the Javanese, the largest people not only in Java, but throughout Indonesia, reached a high development already in the middle of the 1st millennium. Javanese is the oldest written language in the country. Its peculiarity is the existence of several styles, or forms, of address. These styles developed during the Middle Ages and reflected the deep feudal stratification of society. The most common style is Ngoko, i.e. "simple language", which has the richest vocabulary; it is spoken by persons of equal social status and age, as well as elders when addressing the younger ones. The whiter, more polite cromo style is used by younger people when addressing elders. There are other styles of language as well.
The Javanese is an original farmer. Rice is the main agricultural crop. All of Java is a huge rice field, divided by dams into countless squares, triangles, stripes. The field is plowed with a light wooden plow with a metal coulter and without a blade. Buffaloes or bulls serve as a draft force. Sometimes a herd of buffaloes is driven out into the field, and they “plow” the ground with their feet. The most common tool of labor is a hoe. Rice stalks are cut with a special knife called ani-ani: it is a palm-sized wooden plate with a small metal blade inserted into its edge. Among the Javanese, 9/10 of the fields are occupied by food crops and only 1/10 by industrial crops.
Phlegmatic buffaloes and lazy bulls, leisurely pulling a plow or sleepily lying in some shallow reservoir, whitish humpbacked zebu harnessed to wagons, are a common picture in the village. In some areas, small, slightly larger than ponies, horses are bred for the transport of goods. Almost every farm has chickens, ducks, geese.
The coastal population is engaged in fishing. The boats are simple: most often it is a dugout for 2-4 people with one or two balancers located on the sides; there are also larger boats sewn from boards for about twenty people. Fish farming is widely developed.
The Javanese are excellent craftsmen in many types of crafts. World famous Javanese fabrics - batiki. The craftswoman applies a complex pattern on a white fabric. With the help of special tiny funnels filled with melted wax with spouts of different diameters. The fabric is then dipped into the dye, removed from it, dried, some of the wax is scraped off and dipped in another dye. The operation is repeated as many times as they want to receive tones. Making a piece of multicolor batik takes about a month. The ornament previously had a strictly canonized meaning. IN Lately printed fabrics, and especially machine-made batik, imported in large quantities from Europe, displace this ancient art.
Balinese.
"Pearl of pearls" is called Bali in Indonesia. This small island (its area is 5 times smaller than the area of Crimea) is famous for the beauty of nature and the unusually vibrant national culture of its two million inhabitants. The Balinese is a little taller than the Javanese, his skin is a little lighter; Balinese women are slenderer than Javanese women, which is greatly facilitated by the ancient custom of carrying loads on the head, which is widespread in Bali and is still to this day. The whole life of the Balinese peasant, as well as the Javanese, is connected with the cultivation of rice. Sawahi rice fields descending in terraces down the slopes of the mountains are the most remarkable feature of the Balinese landscape. The Balinese are also engaged in animal husbandry, poultry farming, as well as the cultivation of flowers for secular and religious holidays.
The village is a green island in a colorful sea of rice fields. The estates are fenced with stone or adobe walls, so that the streets are a continuous line of fences, because of which only the roofs of buildings are visible. Each farm is a complex of buildings under gable thatched or palm roofs. On
"There are several residential buildings on the site: for the owner and mistress of the house, their children, parents; there are also many outbuildings. All buildings are piled. The most revered place is a family temple dedicated to the spirits of ancestors and gods, in addition, there are several more sanctuaries and altars.
The Balinese almost universally wear batik kains and sarongs, although they do not make batik themselves, but import it from Java. Traditionally, the upper body of men and women is naked, but in recent times, women are gradually abandoning this custom. Girls often wear their hair loose. Festive attire is surprisingly solemn: here are brocade, batik, silk, precious jewelry, and traditional krises; women wear crowns and diadems of flowers on their heads. Magnolia flowers give a special charm to women's hairstyles.
The communal organization has survived much better in Bali than in Java; it is also called desa. It is characterized by the presence of many units that perform strictly defined functions. The most important role is played by the sub-traditional organization of Savakh owners, who use water from one common source and jointly solve all issues of land use and irrigation.
Peoples of Sumatra.
Another cultural world in Sumatra; especially in areas that have not experienced the influence of the Javanese and Sundas, that is, outside of Palembang and its environs and outside the coastal regions of South Sumatra. The whole east of Sumatra and the islands near its east coast are inhabited by Malays. The languages of the Malays of Sumatra and Malaysia are almost identical both grammatically and lexically, the difference in vocabulary is less than 10% of the vocabulary; ethnographic differences between the two groups of the Malay ethnic group are also small; their political history is closely intertwined.
Indonesian Malays are rice farmers. Unlike the Javanese, they sow rice mainly on upland fields - ladangs. Irrigated fields are arranged only along the banks and in the mouths of the rivers. A rather large place in their economy is occupied by plantation crops: rubber, coffee, tobacco, oil, coconut and sago palms, as well as ginger, from which tannic extract is obtained. In coastal areas, the main occupation of the population is fishing, which is especially developed on the shores of the Strait of Malacca, this "fish base" of Indonesia. Throughout the country, Palembangian fabrics, especially brocades, are famous. Palembang and Jambian blacksmiths and jewelers compete in skill with Javanese. Almost every village has its own carpenters-shipbuilders who make a variety of prau - boats.
People of Kalimantan.
Over the past millennium, the western and eastern coasts of Kalimantan were gradually mastered by the Malays, who pushed the indigenous population - the Dayaks - into the interior of the island. On the southern coast, on a Malayo-Javanese basis with an admixture of Dayak, Bug and Arab components, the Banjara people formed. Dayaks now inhabit the interior of Kalimantan and only in some places occupy the coastal regions. Europeans began to get acquainted with the life of these warlike forest peoples only about 100 years ago. Dayaks is a collective name denoting many related peoples and tribes. They often call themselves by the name of the river near which they live. Punans are a special group - a few tribes of hunters and gatherers, nomadic in the deep regions of northeastern Kalimantan. In terms of socio-economic development, they are lower than the Dayaks, but higher than the Sumatran Cuba.
The basis of the Dayak economy is slash-and-burn agriculture (not counting a small group of hunters and gatherers). The forest is felled together, and this work begins from the top of the hill, so that the falling trunks crush other trees growing down the slope with their weight. Then the vegetation is burned and after the fire, rice is planted in holes made with a planting stake. The field is weeded, protected from rodents and birds. The crop is harvested by cutting the stems with Javanese-style knives. Fertilizers are not applied, so after 2-3 years the field is depleted; it is left for 3-4 years and a new one is burned out. After three or four cycles, the land becomes so impoverished that the site is abandoned for 12-15 years. In addition to rice, the Dayaks grow corn, millet, tubers, vegetables, and legumes. However, unlike the rest of the fully agricultural peoples of Indonesia, the life of the Dayaks is entirely connected with the forest. And not only because here "they make their cuts, hunt wild boars and deer. The forest also gives the Dayaks products for exchange: rattan, resins, camphor, wild bee honey, edible fruits, various valuable woods. Separate areas of settlement of the Dayaks are connected between they are mainly rivers, along which they move in dugout boats.
Peoples of Sulawesi.
Several relatively large peoples live on Sulawesi, who created their statehood many centuries ago, have rich literature and profess Islam or Christianity. These are, first of all, Muslim peoples - Bugis and Makassars; the Christianized peoples of North Sulawesi, especially the Minahas, are approaching them in terms of socio-economic development. And here, in Sulawesi, there are tribes of hunters, gatherers, early farmers, standing at a very low level of economic and social development.
Of all the peoples of Sulawesi, boogies and makacaps played the greatest role in the history of Indonesia. Engaged in agriculture and fishing, in the past they were also excellent sailors and held the spice trade in their hands: the path to Eastern Indonesia, to the "Spice Islands", lay through the Makassar Strait, past the states of the Bugs and Makassars. Relations of the feudal type began to take shape here as early as the 15th century. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. Bug and Makassar leaders with their military squads are often on long years seized power in the sultanates in the east of Sumatra, in Malay Johor, as well as in a number of regions of Eastern Indonesia. With the arrival of the Portuguese and the Dutch, the trade and navigation of these peoples suffered irreparable damage.
The Bugs and Makassars have a rich literature, for which a special writing system was previously used. This literature includes historical chronicles, heroic poems, united in the La Galigo cycle, named after the protagonist. Wedding customs are interesting, combining Muslim and traditional rituals. For example, during the wedding celebration, the clothes of the bride and groom are sewn together with a few stitches, and their hair is tied and a scarf is thrown over them, which should symbolize unity; the official part of the ceremony is performed by a Muslim cleric. Both boogies and macasars are very fond of cockfights, arranged for any festive occasion.
The peoples of the Lesser Sunda and Moluccas.
These two regions of Indonesia are a true ethnographic kaleidoscope. Here, even on small islands, sometimes several dozen peoples live; some of them are numerous, others number only a few hundred people. Once all the inhabitants of the Moluccas were united under one name "Alfurs" (from the Arabic-Spanish words meaning "wild", "furious"). Now all these peoples are called either by their ethnonyms or by the island they inhabit. The level of socio-economic and cultural development of the peoples of Eastern Indonesia is very different. There are also arable farmers, hunters and gatherers. Some nationalities and tribes have been significantly influenced by the more developed peoples of Indonesia. For example, the Balinese had a considerable influence on the Sasaks of the island of Lombok; the peoples of Flores and Timor were influenced by the Bug, Minangkabau, and Malays. Other East Indonesian peoples, up to the present, live in conditions of relative isolation. Bypassed many areas of Eastern Indonesia and the impact of Europeans. Anthropologically, this area is very diverse.
Peoples of Irian Jaya.
Irian Jaya, like the neighboring state of Papua New Guinea, is a unique example in the modern era, when a numerically significant population still lives for the most part in conditions close to the Stone Age. The main inhabitants of Irian Jaya - the Papuans are divided into a large number of tribes; the number of their languages and dialects is not less than 200.
Papuans are farmers and hunters. They grow taro and yams, and in the mountains of sweet potato, in marshy coastal regions, they extract sago. They hunt mainly wild boars. They are also engaged in fishing. Their tools of labor are very primitive: the cultivation of the earth is carried out with pointed stakes, as well as stone hoes, stone axes, adzes, and knives are widely used. Recently, however, metal tools imported from other islands of Indonesia have become more and more common. Coastal Papuan tribes make excellent balance beam boats, often carving and painting the hull of the boat. In addition to the settled Papuan farmers, there are semi-sedentary Papuan tribes. A small number of Papuans work in mining enterprises and as servants for Europeans and Indonesians living in Irian Jaya. They are also employed in the service sector in the towns that have arisen here.
A Papuan village consists of a men's house where all men (except little boys) live, and several "family" huts where their wives live, as well as unmarried sisters and small children. The huts are piled, rectangular in plan, their walls are made of bark, the floor is made of bamboo, the roofs are made of palm leaves. In dry areas where there are no dangerous reptiles nearby, huts are built directly on the ground. In the hinterland, there are round huts with walls made of boards dug into the ground, as well as huts on sprawling trees. The Papuans sleep on high bunks. It gets cold at night, and fires are made in the huts.
All the clothes of the Papuans are a belt made of bark and an apron or skirt made of vegetable fibers descending to the knees; among the coastal Papuans, instead of an apron, a shell or shell of a coconut. Women cut their hair short and even shave it; men, on the contrary, take great care of their lush curly hair: they comb their hair, smear it with palm oil, and decorate it in every possible way. The decoration also pursues ritual purposes. Men pierce their nose and ears and insert boar bones or bamboo plates into the holes made. Initiation, many Papuans burn or cut scars on the body with a stone knife.
Architecture and sculpture.
The main monuments of Indonesian antiquity have been preserved mainly in Java. These are numerous Hindu and Buddhist temples called chandu. Most of them are characterized by small size, harmonious fusion of architecture and sculpture, skillful use of landscape features. Unnamed builders, not knowing lime and cement, tightly laid stone to stone, fastening them with the help of a “lock” - connecting the protrusion of one stone with the recess of another.
Most famous is the grandiose temple of the Buddha - Chandi Borobudur, built at the end of the 8th - beginning of the 9th century. Historical vicissitudes led to the fact that the temple was abandoned, partially covered with earth, lush tropical vegetation completely hid it. Only in 1814 Borobudur was again discovered and freed from the layers of centuries, and in 1907-1911. underwent major restoration. The temple was built around a natural hill, lined with stone blocks, and has the appearance of a stepped pyramid, square in plan. - The steps of the pyramids of ida are galleries encircling the monument. The side of the base of the monument is 123 m, the height is about 32 m; before, when there was a spire crowning it, its total height exceeded 40 m. The temple has no internal space; it is formed by five lower rectangular and three upper concentric galleries facing the surrounding groves and fields, the nearby mountains and the bright blue sky of the tropics.
The main features of modern cultural development.
If in the past centuries Indonesia has experienced a variety of cultural influences coming from the eastern countries, and then experienced a strong impact European culture, predominantly Dutch, then after independence, and especially after 1965, it was subjected to an intense influence of bourgeois American and Japanese culture. Modernist tendencies affect primarily the sphere of material culture, partly - the manner of behavior, they are especially noticeable in the ways of spending leisure time. Along with the inevitable and useful technical innovations come many negative phenomena characteristic of bourgeois culture.
The main direction of the cultural development of Indonesia after the proclamation of the republic is the education of all the peoples of the country of the idea of a "single Indonesian nation", emphasizing the outstanding role played by the peoples of Indonesia in the past, and calling for the creation of a beautiful future. The Indonesian media and art are subservient to this task. In general, this direction of the cultural policy of the country, which has thrown off the foreign domination that humiliated it, is progressive. Some of the extremes of the ultra-nationalist order that are sometimes observed do not destroy the main thing: the peoples of the country have awakened a national self-consciousness, they began to honor their history, culture, and heroes. At the same time, in Indonesia there is a strengthening of the national self-consciousness of individual nations and peoples of the country who wish to participate in the social and cultural life of Indonesia on an equal footing.
In Russian culture of the XIII-XV centuries. two stages are clearly visible. The internal frontier in the development of culture of the XIII-XV centuries. was the Battle of Kulikovo (1380). If the first stage is characterized by stagnation and decline after the terrible blow of the Mongol hordes, then after 1380 its dynamic rise begins, in which the beginning of the merging of local art schools into a general Moscow, all-Russian culture can be traced.
Folklore.
During the period of the struggle against the Mongol conquerors and the Golden Horde yoke, an appeal to epics and legends of the Kiev cycle, in which battles with enemies were described in bright colors Ancient Rus' and the feat of arms of the people was famous, gave the Russian people new strength. Ancient epics acquired a deep meaning, began to live in oh life. New legends (such as, for example, “The Legend of the Invisible City of Kitezh” - a city that went to the bottom of the lake along with its brave defenders, who did not surrender to the enemies, and became invisible to them), called the Russian people to fight to overthrow the hated Golden Horde yoke . A genre of poetic and historical songs is taking shape. Among them is the “Song of Shchelkan Dudentevich”, which tells about the uprising in Tver in 1327.
Chronicle.
Thanks to economic growth, business records are becoming more and more necessary. From the 14th century the use of paper instead of expensive parchment begins. The growing need for records, the appearance of paper led to the acceleration of writing. To replace the “charter”, when square letters were written out with geometric accuracy andfemininity, a semi-ustav comes - a freer and fluent letter, and from the 15th century. shorthand appears, close to modern writing. Along with paper, in especially important cases, they continued to use parchment, various types of rough and household records were made, as before, on birch bark.
As already noted, chronicle writing in Novgorod was not interrupted even during the period of the Mongol-Tatar invasion and yoke. At the end of the XIII - beginning of the XIV century. new centers of chronicle writing emerged. Since 1325, chronicle records began to be kept in Moscow as well. During the formation of a single state with its center in Moscow, the role of chronicle writing increased. When Ivan III went on a campaign against Novgorod, it was not by chance that he took with him the deacon Stepan the Bearded: to prove, on the basis of the chronicle, the necessity of annexing Novgorod to Moscow.
In 1408, an all-Russian annalistic code was compiled, the so-called Trinity Chronicle, which died in the Moscow fire of 1812, and the creation of the Moscow annalistic code is attributed to 1479. They are based on the idea of all-Russian unity, the historical role of Moscow in the state unification of all Russian lands, the continuity of the traditions of Kiev and Vladimir.
Interest in world AI, the desire to determine one's place among the peoples of the world caused the appearance of chronographs - works on world AI. The first Russian chronograph was compiled in 1442 by Pachomius Logofet.
Common literary genre of that time there were isic stories. They told about the activities of real historical persons, specific historical facts and events. The story often was, as it were, part of the annalistic text. Before the Kulikovo victory, the story “On the Battle of the Kalka”, “The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu” (it told about the feat of the Ryazan hero Yevpaty Kolovrat), stories about Alexander Nevsky and others were widely known before the Kulikovo victory.
The brilliant victory of Dmitry Donskoy in 1380 is dedicated to a cycle of historical stories (for example, “The Legend of the Battle of Mamaev”). Zephanius Ryazanets created the famous pathetic poem "Zadonshchina", built on the model of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". But if in the "Word" the defeat of the Russians was described, then in the "Zadonshchina" - their victory.
During the period of the unification of the Russian lands around Moscow, the genre of hagiographic literature flourished. Talented writers Pakhomiy Logofet and Epiphanius the Wise compiled biographies of the largest church leaders in Rus': Metropolitan Peter, who transferred the center of the metropolis to Moscow, Sergius of Radonezh, the founder of the Trinity-Sershev Monastery, who supported the great Moscow prince in the fight against the Horde.
“Journey beyond three seas” (1466-1472) by the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin is the first European literature description of India. Afanasy Nikitin made his journey 30 years before the opening of the route to India by the Portuguese Vasco da Gama.
Architecture.
Earlier than in other lands, stone construction resumed in Novgorod and Pskov. Using previous traditions, Novgorodians and Pskovians built dozens of small temples. Among them are such significant monuments of architecture and painting of that time as the Church of Fyodor Stratilat on the Ruche (1361) and the Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street (1374) in Novgorod, the Church of Vasily on Gorka (1410) in Pskov. The abundance of decorative decorations on the walls, general elegance, and festivity are characteristic of these buildings. The bright and original architecture of Novgorod and Pskov has remained virtually unchanged for centuries. Experts explain this stability of architectural and artistic tastes by the conservatism of the Novgorod boyars, who sought to maintain independence from Moscow. Hence the focus is mainly on local traditions.
The first stone buildings in the Moscow principality date back to the 14th-15th centuries. The temples that have come down to us in Zvenigorod - the Cathedral of the Assumption (1400) and the Cathedral of the Savvino-S Ozhev Monastery (1405), the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery (1422), the Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery in Moscow (1427) continued the traditions of Vladimir-Suzdal white stone architecture. The accumulated experience made it possible to successfully fulfill the most important order of the Grand Duke of Moscow - to create a powerful, full of grandeur, dignity and strength of the Moscow Kremlin.
The first white-stone walls of the Moscow Kremlin were erected under Dmitry Donskoy in 1367. However, after the invasion of Tokhtamysh in 1382, the Kremlin fortifications were badly damaged. A century later, grandiose construction in Moscow with the participation of Italian masters, who then occupied a leading position in Europe, ended with the creation at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin, which has survived to this day.
The Kremlin territory of 27.5 hectares was protected by a red brick wall, the length of which reached 2.25 km, the thickness of the walls was 3.5-6.5 m, and their height was 5-19 m. century, 18 towers were erected out of the current 20. The towers had hipped roofs. The Kremlin occupied a place on a cape at the confluence of the Neglinnaya River (now included in the collection) into the Moscow River. From the side of Red Square, a moat was built that connected both rivers. Thus, the Kremlin found itself, as it were, on an island. It was one of the largest fortresses in the world, built according to all the rules of the then fortification science. Under the shelter of powerful walls, the palaces of the Grand Duke and the Metropolitan, buildings of state institutions, and monasteries were erected.
The heart of the Kremlin is Cathedral Square, on which the main cathedrals overlook; its central structure is the Ivan the Great Bell Tower (finally completed under Boris Godunov, reaching a height of 81 m).
In 1475-1479. the main cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin - the Assumption Cathedral was built. The temple was started to be built by Pskov craftsmen (1471). A small "coward" (earthquake) in Moscow destroyed the topmast of the building. The construction of the Assumption Cathedral was entrusted to the talented architect of the Italian Renaissance, Aristotle Fiorovanti. The Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir served as a model for it. In the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, Fiorovanti managed to organically combine the traditions and principles of Russian (primarily, Vladimir-Suzdal) architecture and advanced technical achievements of European architecture. The majestic five-domed Assumption Cathedral was the largest public building of that time. Here the tsars were crowned kings, Zemsky Sobors met, and the most important state decisions were announced.
In 1481-1489 vols. Pskov craftsmen erected the Cathedral of the Annunciation - the house church of the Moscow sovereigns. Not far from it, also on Cathedral Square, under the leadership of the Italian Aleviz the New, the tomb of the Moscow Grand Dukes was built - the Archangel Cathedral (1505-1509). If the plan of the building and its design are made in the traditions of ancient Russian architecture, then the external decoration of the cathedral resembles the wall decorations of Venetian palaces. At the same time, the Faceted Chamber was built (1487-1491). From the "edges" that adorned the outer walls, it got its name. The Faceted Chamber was part of the royal palace, its throne room. The almost square hall, whose walls rest on a massive tetrahedral pillar erected in the center, occupies an area of about 500 square meters. m and has a height of 9 m. Here foreign ambassadors were introduced to the king, receptions were held, important decisions were made.
Painting.
The merging of local art schools into the all-Russian one was also observed in painting. It was a long process, its traces were noted both in the 16th and in the 17th centuries.
In the XIV century. in Novgorod and Moscow, the wonderful artist Theophan the Greek, who came from Byzantium, worked. The fresco paintings of Theophanes the Greek that have come down to us in the Novgorod Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street are distinguished by their extraordinary expressive power, expression, asceticism, and loftiness of the human spirit. Theophanes the Greek was able to create emotional tension, reaching tragedy, with strong long strokes of his brush, sharp “gaps”. Russian people came specially to observe the work of Theophan the Greek. The audience was amazed that the great master wrote his works without using icon-painting samples.
The highest rise of Russian icon art is associated with the work of Feofan the Greek's contemporary, the brilliant Russian artist Andrei Rublev. Unfortunately, almost no information about the life of the outstanding master has been preserved.
Andrei Rublev lived at the turn of the XIV-XV centuries. His work was inspired by the remarkable victory at the Kulikovo field, the economic upsurge of Muscovite Russia, and the growth of self-awareness of the Russian people. Philosophical depth, inner dignity and strength, ideas of unity and peace between people, humanity are reflected in the artist's works. A harmonious, soft combination of delicate, pure colors creates the impression of integrity and completeness of his images. The famous "Trinity" (kept in the Tretyakov Gallery), which has become one of the pinnacles of world art, embodies the main features and principles of Andrei Rublev's painting style. The perfect images of the “Trinity” symbolize the idea of the unity of the world and humanity.
A. Rublev's brushes also belong to the fresco paintings of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the icons of the Zvenigorod rank (kept in the Tretyakov Gallery), and the Trinity Cathedral in Sergiev Posad that have come down to us.
RUSSIAN CULTURE XVI century.
The religious worldview still determined the spiritual life of society. The Stoglavy Cathedral of 1551 also played an important role in this. It regulated art, approving the patterns that were to be followed. The work of Andrei Rublev was formally proclaimed as a model in painting. But what was meant was not the artistic merits of his painting, but iconography - the arrangement of figures, the use of a certain color, etc. in each specific plot and image. In architecture, the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin was taken as a model, in literature - the works of Metropolitan Macarius and his circle.
In the XVI century. the formation of the Great Russian people is completed. In the Russian lands, which became part of a single state, more and more things were found in common in language, life, customs, customs, etc. In the XVI century. More tangibly than before, secular elements were manifested in culture.
Socio-political thought.
Events of the 16th century caused a discussion in Russian journalism of many problems of that time: about the nature and essence of state power, about the church, about the place of Russia among other countries, etc.
At the beginning of the XVI century. was created literary-journalistic and historical essay "The Tale of the Grand Dukes of Vladimir". This legendary work began with a story about the Great Flood. Then followed a list of rulers of the world, among whom the Roman emperor Augustus stood out in particular. He allegedly sent his brother Prus, who founded the family of the legendary Rurik, to the banks of the Vistula. The latter was invited as a Russian prince. The heir of Prus and Rurik, and consequently of August, Prince of Kiev Vladimir Monomakh received from the Emperor of Constantinople and the symbols of royal power - a cap-crown and precious barms-mantles. Ivan the Terrible, proceeding from his kinship with Monomakh, proudly wrote to the Swedish king: “We are related to Augustus Caesar.” Russian state, according to Grozny, continued the traditions of Rome and the Kievan state.
In the ecclesiastical milieu, the thesis about Moscow, the “third Rome,” was put forward. Here the historical process acted as a change of world kingdoms. The first Rome - the "eternal city" - perished because of heresies; “to oh Rome” - Constantinople - because of the union with the Catholics; “Third Rome” – the true guardian of Christianity – Moscow, which will exist forever.
Reasoning about the need to create a strong autocratic power based on the nobility is contained in the writings of I.S. Peresvetova. Questions concerning the role and place of the nobility in the administration of the feudal state were reflected in the correspondence between Ivan IV and Prince Andrei Kurbsky.
chronicle writing
In the XVI century. Russian chronicle continued to develop. The writings of this genre include “The Chronicler of the Beginning of the Kingdom”, which describes the first years of the reign of Ivan the Terrible and proves the need to establish royal power in Russia. Another major work of that time is the “Book of Powers of the Royal Genealogy”. Portraits and descriptions of the reigns of the great Russian princes and metropolitans in it are arranged in 17 degrees - from Vladimir I to Ivan the Terrible. Such an arrangement and construction of the text, as it were, symbolizes the inviolability of the union of the church and the king.
In the middle of the XVI century. Moscow chroniclers prepared a huge chronicle code, a kind of historical encyclopedia of the 16th century. - the so-called Nikon Chronicle (in the 17th century it belonged to Patriarch Nikon). One of the lists of the Nikon Chronicle contains about 16 thousand miniatures - color illustrations, for which it received the name of the Facial Vault (“face” - image).
Along with chronicle writing, historical stories, which told about the events of that time, received further development. (“Kazan Capture”, “On the Coming of Stefan Baiy to the City of Pskov”, etc.) New chronographs were created. The secularization of culture is evidenced by a book written at that time, containing a variety of useful information for guidance in both spiritual and worldly life - “Domostroy” (in translation - housekeeping), which is considered to be Sylvester.
Beginning of typography.
The beginning of Russian book printing is considered to be 1564, when the first Russian dated book “The Apostle” was published by the first printer Ivan Fedorov. However, there are seven books with no exact publication date. These are the so-called anonyms - books published before 1564. One of the most talented Russian people of the 16th century was involved in organizing the creation of a printing house. Ivan Fedorov. Printing work begun in the Kremlin was transferred to Nikolskaya Street, where a special building was built for the printing house. In addition to religious books, Ivan Fedorov and his assistant Peter Mstislavets in 1574 in Lvov published the first Russian primer - "ABC". Throughout the 16th century in Russia, only 20 books were printed by typography. The handwritten book occupied a leading place in both the 16th and 17th centuries.
Architecture.
One of the outstanding manifestations of the flourishing of Russian architecture was the construction of hipped temples. Tent temples do not have pillars inside, and the entire mass of the building rests on the foundation. Most famous monuments of this style are the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye, built in honor of the birth of Ivan the Terrible, the Intercession Cathedral (St. Basil's), built in honor of the capture of Kazan.
Another direction in the architecture of the XVI century. was the construction of large five-domed monastery churches modeled on the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow. Similar temples were built in many Russian monasteries and as the main cathedrals - in the largest Russian cities. The most famous are the Assumption Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, the Smolensky Cathedral of the Novodevichy Convent, cathedrals in Tula, Suzdal, Dmitrov and other cities.
Another direction in the architecture of the XVI century. was the construction of small stone or wooden township churches. They were the centers of settlements inhabited by artisans of a certain specialty, and were dedicated to a certain saint - the patron of this craft.
In the XVI century. extensive construction of stone kremlins was carried out. In the 30s of the XVI century. the part of the settlement adjacent to the Moscow Kremlin from the east was surrounded by a brick wall called Kitaygorodskaya (a number of isiks believe that the name comes from the word “whale” - a knitting of poles used in the construction of fortresses, others believe that the name comes either from the Italian word - city , or from the Turkic - a fortress). The wall of Kitay-gorod protected the city of Red Square and the nearby settlements. At the very end of the XVI century. architect Fyodor Kon erected the white-stone walls of a 9-kilometer white city(modern Boulevard Ring). Then Zemlyanoy Val was erected in Moscow - a 15-kilometer wooden fortress on the rampart (modern Garden Ring).
Stone fortresses with fire were erected in the Volga region (Nizhny Novgorod, Kazan, Astrakhan), in the cities to the south (Tula, Kolomna, Zaraisk, Serpukhov) and west of Moscow (Smolensk), in the north-west of Russia (Novgorod, Pskov, Izborsk, Pechory ) and even in the far North (Solovki Islands).
Painting.
The largest Russian painter, who lived in the late XV - early XVI century, was Dionysius. The works belonging to his brush include the fresco painting of the Nativity Cathedral of the Ferapontov Monastery near Vologda, an icon depicting scenes from the life of the Moscow Metropolitan Alexei, and others. Dionisy's painting is characterized by extraordinary brightness, festivity, and sophistication, which he achieved. applying such techniques as lengthening the proportions of the human Body, refinement in the decoration of every detail of an icon or fresco.
RUSSIAN CULTURE XVII.
In the 17th century the formation of the all-Russian market begins. With the development of handicrafts and trade, the growth of cities, the penetration into Russian culture and the widespread dissemination of secular elements in it are connected. This process was called in the literature "secularization" of culture (from the word "worldly" - secular).
The secularization of Russian culture was opposed by the church, which saw in it a Western, “Latin” influence. The Moscow rulers of the 17th century, seeking to limit the influence of the West in the person of foreigners arriving in Moscow, forced them to settle away from Muscovites - in the German settlement specially designated for them (now the area of Bauman Street). However, new ideas and customs penetrated into the established life of Muscovite Russia. The country needed knowledgeable, educated people who were able to engage in diplomacy, to understand the innovations of military affairs, technology, manufacturing, etc. The reunification of Ukraine with Russia contributed to the expansion of political and cultural ties with the countries of Western Europe.
Education.
In the second half of the XVII century. several public schools were established. There was a school for the training of employees for central institutions, for the Printing House, the Pharmaceutical Order, etc. The printing press made it possible to publish uniform textbooks for teaching literacy and arithmetic in mass circulation. The interest of Russian people in literacy is evidenced by the sale in Moscow (1651) for one day of the “Primer” by V.F. Burtsev, published in 2400 copies. The "Grammar" of Meletius Smotrytsky (1648) and the multiplication table (1682) were published.
In 1687, the first institution of higher education, the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, was founded in Moscow, where they taught “from grammar, ri iki, piitika, dialectics, philosophy ... to theology.” The Academy was headed by the brothers Sofrony and Ioanniky Likhud, Greek scientists who graduated from the University of Padua (Italy). Priests and officials were trained here. M.V. also studied at this academy. Lomonosov.
In the 17th century, as before, there was a process of accumulation of knowledge. Great successes were achieved in the field of medicine, in solving practical problems in mathematics (many were able to measure areas, distances, loose bodies, etc. with great accuracy), in observing nature.
Russian explorers made a significant contribution to the development of geographical knowledge. In 1648, the expedition of Semyon Dezhnev (80 years before Vitus Bering) reached the strait between Asia and North America. The easternmost point of our country now bears the name of Dezhnev.
E.P. Khabarov in 1649 made a map and studied the lands along the Amur, where Russian settlements were founded. The city of Khabarovsk and the village of Erofey Pavlovich bear his name. At the very end of the XVII century. Siberian Cossack V.V. Atlasov explored Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands.
Literature.
In the 17th century created the last annalistic works. The “New Chronicler” (30s) recounted the events from the death of Ivan the Terrible to the end of the Time of Troubles. It proved the rights of the new Romanov dynasty to the royal throne.
Historical stories, which had a journalistic character, occupied a central place in isical literature. For example, a group of such stories (“Vremennik dyak Ivan Timofeev”, “The Tale of Avraamy Palitsyn”, “Another Tale”, etc.) was a response to the events of the Time of Troubles at the beginning of the 17th century.
The penetration of secular principles into literature is associated with the appearance in the 17th century of the genre of satirical story, where already fictional characters act. The “Service to the Tavern”, “The Tale of the Chicken and the Fox”, “Kalyazinsky Petition” contained a parody of the church service, ridiculed the gluttony and drunkenness of the monks, and “The Tale of Ruff Yershovich” contained judicial red tape and bribery. New genres were memoirs (“The Life of Archpriest Avvakum”) and love lyrics (Simeon of Polotsk).
The reunification of Ukraine with Russia gave impetus to the creation of the first Russian printed essay on AI. The Kiev monk Innokenty Gizel compiled a “Synopsis” (review), which in a popular form contained a story about the joint mission of Ukraine and Russia, which began with the formation of Kievan Rus. In the XVII - the first half of the XVIII century. "Synopsis" was used as a textbook of Russian AI.
Theater.
A court theater was created in Moscow (1672), which lasted only four years. It featured German actors. Male and female roles were played by men. The repertoire of the theater included plays based on biblical and legendary stories. The court theater did not leave any noticeable trace in Russian culture.
In Russian cities and villages, since the time of Kievan Rus, a wandering theater has become widespread - the theater of buffoons and Petrushka (the main character of folk puppet shows). The government and Church authorities persecuted buffoonery for their cheerful and bold humor, exposing the vices of those in power.
Architecture.
Architectural buildings of the 17th century. are of great beauty. They are asymmetrical both within a single building and in an ensemble. However, in this apparent disorder of architectural volumes there is both integrity and unity. Buildings of the 17th century multicolored, decorative. Architects were especially fond of decorating the windows of buildings with intricate, unlike each other platbands. Widespread in the 17th century. received multi-colored “solar tiles” - tiles and decorations made of carved stone and brick. Such an abundance of decorations located on the walls of one building was called “stone pattern”, “wonderful pattern”.
These features are well traced in the Terem Palace of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in the Kremlin, in the stone chambers of the Moscow, Pskov, Kostroma boyars of the 17th century that have come down to us, in the New Jerusalem Monastery, built near Moscow by Patriarch Nikon. The famous temples of Yaroslavl are close to them in style - the church of Elijah the Prophet and ensembles in Korovniki and Tolchkovo. As an example of the most famous buildings in Moscow of the 17th century. you can name the Church of St. Nicholas in Khamovniki (near the metro station "Park Kultury"), the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in Putanki (near Pushkin Square), the Church of the Trinity in Nikitniki (near the metro station "Kitay-gorod").
The decorative beginning, which marked the secularization of art, was also reflected in the construction or reconstruction of fortifications. By the middle of the century, the fortresses lost their military significance, and the hipped roof, first on Spasskaya and then on other towers of the Moscow Kremlin, gave way to magnificent tents that emphasized the calm grandeur and feminine power of the heart of the Russian capital.
In Rostov the Great, in the form of a Kremlin, the residence of the disgraced but powerful Metropolitan Jonah was built. This Kremlin was not a fortress, and its walls were purely decorative. The walls of large Russian monasteries erected after the Polish-Lithuanian-Swedish intervention (Trinity-Sergius Monastery, Spaso-Efimiev Monastery in Suzdal, Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery near Vologda, Moscow monasteries), following the general fashion, were also decorated with decorative details.
The development of ancient Russian stone architecture ended with the folding of the style, which received the name “Naryshkinsky” (after the names of the main customers), or Moscow, baroque. Gate churches, the refectory and the bell tower of the Novodevichy Convent, the Church of the Intercession in Fili, churches and palaces in Sergiev Posad, Nizhny Novgorod, Zvenigorod and others were built in this style.
The Moscow baroque is characterized by a combination of red and white colors in the decoration of buildings. The number of storeys of buildings, the use of columns, capitals, etc. as decorative ornaments are clearly traced. Finally, in almost all the buildings of the “Naryshkino” Baroque one can see decorative shells in the cornices of buildings, which were first erected in the 16th century. by Italian masters when decorating the Archangel Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. The appearance of the Moscow baroque, which had common features with the architecture of the West, testified that Russian architecture, despite its originality, developed within the framework of a common European culture.
In the 17th century, wooden architecture flourished. “The eighth wonder of the world” was called by contemporaries the famous palace of Alexei Mikhailovich in the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow. This palace had 270 rooms and about 3 thousand windows and windows. It was built by Russian craftsmen Semyon Petrov and Ivan Mikhailov and lasted until mid-eighteenth century, when it was dismantled under Catherine II due to dilapidation.
Painting.
The secularization of art manifested itself with particular force in Russian painting. The greatest artist of the 17th century was Simon Ushakov. In his well-known icon “The Savior Not Made by Hands”, new realistic features of painting are clearly visible: three-dimensionality in the depiction of the face, elements of direct perspective.
The trend towards a realistic depiction of a person and the secularization of icon painting, characteristic of the school of S. Ushakov, is closely related to the spread in Russia portrait painting- “parsuns” (persons), depicting real characters, for example, Tsar Fedor Ivanovich, M.V. Skopin-Shuisky and others. However, the technique of the artists was still similar to that of icon painting, i.e. wrote on the boards with egg paints. At the end of the XVII century. the first parsuns appeared, painted in oil on canvas, anticipating the heyday of the Russian portrait art in the 18th century
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Description
In the XVII-XVIII centuries. capitalism became the dominant mode of production already in two countries of Europe - Holland and England, and after the liberation war of the North American colonies against British domination - in the USA. France made significant progress in the development of capitalism. This circumstance was the main prerequisite for the wide colonial expansion of these states, to which the main role in the colonial robbery of overseas countries passed from Spain and Portugal. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. the foundations of the world colonial system of imperialism were laid. The fierce struggle of European states for colonies at that time took the form of trade wars. The colonies continued to serve for the European bourgeoisie as one of the means of primitive accumulation. However, they are becoming more and more important...
Introduction 3
Chapter 1. History of Indonesia 4
1.1Indonesia before OIC 4 penetration
1.2 History of Indonesia from the 17th century to the present 5
Chapter 2
2.1 Rise of the East India Company 15
2.2 List of governors-general representing the interests of the Dutch government in the Dutch East Indies, from 1610 to the beginning of the 18th century 18
Chapter 3. History of the State of Mataram-2 31
Conclusion 35
References 36
Introduction
The study of the history of the countries of the East aims to deepen the knowledge of students about the patterns, stages, trends and specifics of the historical development of the countries of the region in the 18th - 20th centuries. The program is focused on developing the creative abilities of future specialists based on their independent work, active methods and forms of learning, in order to respond correctly to the changes made to the learning of students by life, the needs of their practical activities. It is envisaged to comprehend the theoretical problems of the countries of the East, through a deep study of factual history and awareness of the patterns of historical development, the relationship and interdependence of socio-economic and political events and phenomena.
The events of the 80s - 90s, which took place in the countries of Asia and Africa, showed that these countries are the most dynamically developing region of the Earth and will largely determine the vector of human development in the 21st century.
The program examines the patterns and characteristics of the economic and political development of the largest empires in Asia in the second half of the XVIII - early. 19th century ( general characteristics the history of the countries of the East: agrarian relations, the development of cities, handicraft and manufacturing production, trade, the importance of religious institutions and the estate / caste / system, the process of entry of the countries of the region into a period of protracted crises, features of the development of anti-feudal tendencies in the struggle of non-native masses at the time of penetration of European states) .
The purpose of this work is to study the Dutch penetration and establishment in Indonesia in the first half of the 17th century.
To do this, it is necessary to solve a number of problems:
- study the history of Indonesia before the penetration of the Dutch East India Company into it;
- to study the further history of the islands up to the present time;
- explore the history of the emergence of the Dutch East India Company and the history of its penetration into Nusantara;
- study the activities of the governor-generals and rulers of the Indonesian principalities in the 17th century;
- Explore Indonesia as a colony of the Netherlands.
To write this work, not only domestic and translated sources were used, but also literature in a foreign language.
Fragment of the work for review
The reconciled villages gave the Dutch a monopoly on buying nutmeg and nutmeg, but not forever, as in the previous agreements between the Bandans and the Dutch Company, but only for five years. In September 1611, on the islands of Makian and Bachan, Bot was able to expand and strengthen the Dutch fortresses and strengthen their garrisons. At the same time, on the island of Moluck-Halmahera, Bot ordered to organize a stronghold. With some villages on the island, Bot made an agreement that the local population would fight the Dutch against the Spaniards and the Portuguese. For this, Dutch garrisons were placed in several places on the coast of Halmahera. On the island of Ternate, another fortress was erected - called "Fort Holland". January 1613 was marked for Botha by another diplomatic success. The Governor-General was able to conclude a treaty of friendship with the Raja of Butung Island. Under this treaty, the Dutch were not only entitled to duty-free trade on the island, but they were also given permission to build a fortress there. Then, in January of the war, the Butunga took part in a Dutch raid against the East Indonesian islands of Solori Timor, which were under Portuguese control. The Dutch failed to capture Timor. On April 20, 1613, the Dutch commander Schote, who fought on the island of Solore, after a siege of the fortress, which lasted three months, nevertheless forced the Portuguese to surrender it. The garrison of the fortress, which consisted of 30 Portuguese and 250 Indonesians, was able to leave the fortress with the permission of the Dutch, while maintaining the dignity of the losers - they left the fortress with weapons and banners. The commanders of Shote even gave them food for the road. But after the Portuguese surrendered, a couple of days later, reinforcements arrived to their aid in the form of 50 Portuguese and 450 Indonesians. But reinforcements were late, and Solor remained with the Dutch. The Portuguese monopoly on the sandalwood trade of the Timor archipelago with China and Japan was undermined. Another victory for Botha was the long-prepared strike against the center of Spanish possessions in the Moluccas - Fort Mariko on Tidore. The battle did not last long, the Spaniards were put to flight, and the terantian allies of the Dutch burned the fortress. The bot could not prevent the destruction of Fort Mariko, but immediately he ordered the construction of a new, more powerful fortress nearby. By September, Bot was finally able to gain a foothold and consolidate his success in the Moluccas, and after a two-year absence, he returns to Java. On September 14, Botha's squadron arrived in Gresik. In this city, hostilities were fought, which by this time had just ended. But the founded Dutch trading post, one of the first, completely burned down. The troops of Mataram, after Gresik was captured, could not stay in it, suffering greatly from epidemics, and they had to retreat deep into the island again. Representatives of Agung nevertheless decided to make contact with Both, he was given to understand that Agung was ready to cooperate with the East India Company, but only if the conditions were beneficial to both parties. This influenced Bot's decision to move the trading post to another place, from Gresiki the trading post moved to Japarta, a port that had long been firmly held by Mataram. Here one could buy a lot of cheap rice needed on the Spice Islands. In April 1614 Bothom sent an embassy to Agungu. Both put Caspar van Zurk at the head of the embassy. The embassy arrived in the capital of Mataram, where the young ruler received the representatives with honors. From him permission was received not only to build a trading post in Japarta, but also a small fortification. The free export of rice was allowed, and the ruler of Mataram promised the Company assistance in its conflict with Bantam. Thus, the reign of the first Governor-General of Botha was due to significant success in the colonization of Indonesia and the fight against competitors. The company began its consolidation in Indonesia. The second governor general was Gerard Reinst, who ruled in the colonized territories for only a year, from 1614 to 1615. Peter Both was replaced by Reinst, who came from Holland. The new governor-general had instructions from the Council of Seventeen to subjugate the island of Banda as soon as possible, since the penetration of the British into this archipelago caused the board of the Dutch East India Company to fear that the bandans would become a protectorate of England. In March 1615, Reinst ended up on the Spice Islands. And here it turned out that the British were able to launch a stormy activity not only on the Banda Islands, but also on South Seram, and even on Ambon. Here, the British bought cloves from the local population, despite the fact that the Dutch governor Adrian Blok protested. Reinst, who arrived, tried to restore order and protect the interests of Holland, so he began to demand from the British to leave the sphere of Dutch interests. The British did not resist, they left the island, and the inhabitants of Seram were left to be punished by the Dutch. On the island of Banda Naira, Reinst again encountered the English squadron under the command of George Ball. The Governor-General ordered his ships to start a convoy of English ships outside the Spice Islands, but Ball managed to elude the convoy and reach the island of Pulo Ai. On the island, he scored a full load of spices, for which the islanders got weapons. Upon learning of this, Reinst with all his might proceeded to the island of Pulo Ai and began the siege of the fortress built here by local residents. On May 13, 1615, the assault on the fortress was completed, the fortress was taken. The next step of the Dutch was the construction of their own fort on the island, which received the eloquent name "Retribution". But as soon as Reinst left Pulo Ai, the Dutch remaining on the island were expelled by the rebellious locals. The Dutch were expelled "in disgrace and at the loss of many killed and wounded," as one contemporary wrote. In December 1615, Reinst died. For six months, the post of governor-general remained vacant. The actual power in the possessions of the Dutch East India Company at that time passed into the hands of Kun, the most energetic and influential member of the Council of India. If we talk about the year of Reinst's reign, it was not very successful. No particular success was achieved, but there were failures with the local population and the British. And the next governor-general had to solve the problems that arose. The next, third Governor-General was Lairens Real, who held this position for three years, from 1616 to 1619. He arrived at the Banda Islands in April 1617. The first thing he had to do was negotiate with Kurthoope. He offered to return both ships and pay for the damages if he left the Banda Islands. But Real was refused by Kurthope. I had to act by military methods - Real decided to organize a tight blockade of the Banda Islands. When the population was deprived of food, which was brought from outside, people began to die of hunger. In this situation, the island of Lontor was especially affected, this was due to the fact that he fought the Dutch for the longest time. The elders eventually went to negotiations with the governor-general. Representatives of the rest of the Banda Islands followed suit and entered into negotiations with Real Madrid. A peace treaty was signed with the Dutch, which repeated the terms of the treaty of May 3, 1616. But two more points were added - on the creation of a Dutch trading post on Lontor and the obligation of the parties to the agreement not to enter into any contacts with Pulo Run. On September 18, 1617, the Real squadron arrived in Japara. Here the governor-general received news that the mission of Ambassador Gerrit Druyff, which consisted in obtaining permission to turn the Dutch trading post into a fortress, had failed. But Real, through threats and coaxing, nevertheless managed to get permission to build it. But this fortification did not last long. The following year, the Matarams, outraged by the violence against the local population, which was done by the personnel of the trading post-fortress, captured it, and the Dutch who were in it were imprisoned. In 1617, the English East India Company settled in Japara, which founded a trading post there. But the British did not stay here for long, the Dutch squadron arrived in Japara under the command of Kun. In retaliation for the arrest of the staff of the Dutch trading post, the city was burned down. The English trading post also perished in the fire. The Dutch also had difficult relations with the French. On December 28, 1617, the squadron of Real, on the way to Bantam, stopped two French ships - Saint-Michel and Saint-Louis. Ten Dutch sailors and Captain Hans Dekker, who was also a Dutchman, were taken off board these ships. The captain replaced the French admiral who died on the way. When the Dutch squadron arrived at Bantam, Dekker did not want to stay with his compatriots, he jumped overboard and boarded a British ship. Soon the British handed him over to the regent Ranamangala. Kun began to demand his extradition, but was refused. For this, he seized the flagship of the French fleet "Saint-Michel", the answer was the drastic measures of the regent, who freed the French ship and banned the export of pepper on Dutch ships. And even if the pepper was already bought, it was also banned. Kuhn had to give the order to save the Dutch trading post and evacuate. The Bantam government was absolutely unprepared for immediate military action with the Dutch company. If Bantam had fallen into a naval blockade, he would have lost most of his income. The regent entered into negotiations with Kun and canceled his ban. At the end of March 1618, off the island of Banda, Real joined the squadron of van der Hagen, who came from the Moluccas, where the squadron fought the Spaniards. By this time, Dutch control of the Banda Islands was all but lost. Most of the created garrisons died of disease, and the surviving soldiers were demoralized and did not want to fight anymore. The conquest of the Banda Islands had to be started from the beginning. On June 25, 1618, Real signed an agreement with the elders of the eastern part of the island of Lontor and the island of Rosengain. Under the contract, he undertook to supply nutmeg to Fort Nassau. Real had to rush to the Moluccas. At the end of 1617, in the Moluccas, the local population was on the verge of an uprising. The Ternats suddenly attacked the Dutch fort of Oranji and almost captured it. The reason for the general discontent was the expulsion of all Asian merchants from the Moluccas. Thus, we can conclude that the reign of Real was not very successful. The occupied territories were lost, the local population raised uprisings, competitors beat the Dutch Company one way or another. The Dutch needed to regain their influence and reconquer territories. The next, fourth, governor-general was Jan Pieterszon Kun, who spent five years in this post, that is, more than all the previous ones. Kuhn entered the service in April 1618, having received notice of this. He quickly crushed the opposition. He declared that the inhabitants of the Spice Islands were no longer entitled to free swimming and trade. The reason for this was that the inhabitants supplied spices to the British and other foreigners, contrary to agreements with the Dutch East India Company. And as Kun commented on this situation: And in general there is nothing to stand on ceremony with them, because "Muslims or pagans, members of the accursed clan of Ham, as enemies of God and the Christian faith, were born for slavery." And thus the new Governor-General believed that the local population should be grateful for what the Dutch give them. And even if it happens that the natives die of starvation, it will be a small disaster. Their place can easily be taken by Dutch colonists, who can grow spices with the help of slaves, "and slaves are not difficult to get in Indonesia." that existed in this place before. Shortly thereafter, he carried out a long-standing threat to the regent of Bantam - he moved his Bantam trading post to Jakarta. In November, Pangeran Galang, who was the brother of the Bantam regent, came to Jakarta for a visit. He arrived with a request to inspect the Dutch trading post, for which he received permission. He arrived at the trading post in the evening, accompanied by the pangeran Virakrama and an escort consisting of 500 soldiers. It was not clear if there was a hidden agenda, but Kun decided to provide for different situations, and he posted musketeers at each window. Goods and valuables were transported aboard the ships in the roadstead, and the visit passed peacefully. At the beginning of 1619 there was a fierce struggle for the Dutch fortress in Jakarta. In the same year, in February, Kun arrived at Ambon, which at that time was the main base of the Dutch East India Company. From there, orders were sent to all areas of the South Seas to all ships, so that they would go to the connection to the western tip of Madura. On May 17, 1619, 17 ships gathered at this point. This fleet, led by Kun, moved to Jakarta, where on the way he plundered and burned Japara for the second time in retaliation for the defeat of the local Dutch trading post by the Mataram authorities in 1617. The fleet reached Jakarta only by the end of May 1619. A landing party of 1,200 soldiers landed on the shore, who, with the support of ship artillery and guns of the fort, attacked the enemy. The Bantam and Jakarta soldiers, who were five times outnumbered, were able to hold back the onslaught of the Dutch musketeers for a very long time. But the battle on the streets of the city went on all day. And only in the evening the last defenders of the city surrendered. Jakarta was burned, stone walls and earthen fortifications were destroyed. On May 31, Kun with his army marched into the peripheral regions of the Jakarta principality. Here he was able to storm two fortifications, the remaining points were fairly easy prey, since the villages were undefended. Jakarta ceased to exist. "By the right of the conqueror" Kun announced that henceforth the Dutch East India Company became the "Lord of the Kingdom of Jakarta", which, according to his concepts, reached the southern coast of Java. Kuhn decided to build a new one on the site of the destroyed capital, to build a new Dutch city of Batavia. The city was erected, and for several centuries, until 1945, it remained the center of Dutch possessions in Indonesia. On June 7, 1619, the squadron stood on the Bantam raid. Kun issued an ultimatum to Regent Ranamangale demanding the immediate release of all Dutch prisoners. At that time, the support of the English fleet was absent, since the squadron was in Masulipatam, and the regent had to agree to the extradition of prisoners. But the ultimatum also contained other demands, which were that Kun wanted exclusive privileges in Bantam. But this was rejected, and the Dutch ships began a long-term blockade of the Bantam coast. And Asian merchants had to bring their goods to Jakarta instead of Bantam. And thus flourished trade in Batavia, which became a trading center, and in Bantam, trade, on the contrary, fell into decline. During the first decade of Batavia's existence, its population increased by almost two and a half times, but not due to demographics, but due to the influx of Chinese settlers. In addition, Kun had to solve another difficult and important task. In addition to the fact that Bantama was already blocked, it was still necessary to deal with the only remaining strong rivals - the British, who dominated the South-East region. August 1619 was marked for Kuhn by the capture of the ship Star, which had just arrived from England, in the Sunda Strait. At the same time, three Dutch ships that were sent to Malaya met in the port of Pattani with two English ships commanded by John Jourden, head of the English East India Company in Southeast Asia. Despite the protests of the Queen of Pattani (later reinforced by the protest of her overlord, the King of Siam), the Dutch attacked the British in the territorial waters of Pattani. The British in this battle lost a huge number of people, the losses were so huge that Jourden had to surrender. During the negotiations, he went on deck and at the same moment was killed by a shot from one of the Dutch. The Dutch claimed that the shot was fired by accident, but English contemporary events, he confidently stated that "the Flemings, having tracked him down, shot him with a musket in the most treacherous and cruel way." In September 1619, the Dutch dealt another strong blow to the English East India Company - they managed to capture four English ships in the port of Tiku, on the western coast of Sumatra, which went there to buy pepper. In the spring of 1620, the British managed to collect an impressive fleet, which led by Admiral Pring, but when he was already approaching Bantam, news came from Europe that agreements had been signed on the joint actions of England and Holland in Southeast Asia. In June 1620, the first fleet of the Council of Defense, which was composed of an equal number of English and Dutch ships, sailed towards the Philippines. The purpose of this retreat was to hunt for Spanish ships in that area. From March to July 1621, a massacre took place on Banda Island. On the island at that time there were 15 thousand inhabitants, of which only 300 were able to survive. They eluded the Dutch patrol ships and were able to reach Seram by boat. An entire nation has ceased to exist. The lands of the island were divided among the employees of the Dutch Company. Slaves bought from various parts of Indonesia to work on the Muscat plantations became the ancestors of the current population of the Banda archipelago. Later in Holland, the Council condemned Kuhn for these actions, but limited himself to a reprimand. On February 2, 1623, that short period of Anglo-Dutch cooperation ended in Indonesia. Kuhn returns to Holland, and was absent from Indonesia for four years, during which time his protege, the former general director of trade, Peter de Carpentier, who continued Kuhn's policy, performed his functions. If we talk about Kuhn's policy in general, then it was tough, but for the Dutch East India Company it was quite effective. Lands were seized, colonial policy was gaining momentum, and rivals were systematically eliminated. Therefore, judging by Kuhn's predecessors, his policy was the most effective. The next governor-general was Peter de Carpenter, whose reign lasted four years. It was a protege of the previous governor. And during his reign in 1624, a new anti-Dutch uprising began on Seram. A sudden uprising began with three communities of South Seram - Lusisala, Luhu and Kambela. They teamed up and suddenly attacked the Dutch fort Hardewijk. The Dutch with great difficulty managed to keep the fortress. This continued until 1625, and only when reinforcements arrived from Holland in the form of a fleet of 13 ships, the governor of Ambon went on the offensive. The Dutch stormed Luhu and other small fortifications on South Seram, burning all the local ships that they managed to meet. Then the felling of clove trees began, at least 65 thousand of them were destroyed. The Ternate government, which was the suzerain of South Seram, protested against this barbaric massacre. After long negotiations, the Ternate governor of the South Seram, Kimelaha Leliato, signed an agreement with the Dutch on the cessation of hostilities. He had to make a promise that the Seramese would continue to supply cloves only to the Dutch OIC. In October 1624, Kuhn managed to get the Council of Seventeen to approve instructions on the allocation of land to the colonists and that vreiburgers (free citizens) would be able to obtain permission for free trade in the East. Dutch families who wished to settle in the colonies could get free passage on the ships of the East India Company. In December of the same year, a meeting of shareholders took place, at which this instruction was annulled. Supporters and opponents of private initiative continued the confrontation until March 1626.
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It is believed that the very first inhabitants of the Indonesian archipelago came from India or Burma. In 1890, fossils of a Pithecanthropus (homo erectus) were found in East Java, approximately 500,000 years old. Later migrants ("Malays") came from southern China and Indochina, and began to inhabit the archipelago around 3000 BC. Powerful groups such as the Buddhist empire of Srivijaya and the Hindu kingdom of Mataram appeared in Java and Sumatra towards the end of the 7th century. The last significant kingdom founded by the Hindus was Majapahit in the 13th century. The subsequent spread of Islam in the archipelago in the 14th century forced the Majapahits to retreat in the 15th century to Bali.
Indonesia includes the full range of diverse societies and cultures. However, education, the media, and the government's policy of nationalism has created a distinct Indonesian national culture. Distinctive cuisine of Indonesia and her crafts, immediately brought her to the international arena.
Batik, the art of applying wax to fabric and then creating colorful and dramatic paintings, is carried out throughout Indonesia, with Jakarta in Java as the center of this activity. Other forms of handicrafts are represented by such types as ikat - a fabric of special weaving from decorated threads; songket - silk fabric with gold or silver threads; and kris are artwork, often embellished with jewels. Javanese wayang - puppet pieces and gamelan - hypnotic music composed mainly of percussion instruments - are also popular artistic forms.
Most Indonesian cuisine is influenced by the Chinese, but some of the dishes at Padang in Sumatra are truly authentic Indonesian. Wherever you travel in Indonesia, you will see snack vendors such as potatoes, sweet nuts, biscuits or fruits. Rice is the basis of every dish, it is put in soup or served as a side dish, participates in salads and marinades. The variety of tropical fruits would have swooned any European greengrocer. These include creamy apples, durios, guava, jak fruit, mango, papaya, star fruit and rambutans.
Social and religious obligations have, over time, formed a special code of conduct called adat or traditional law. Islam is the predominant religion of the archipelago, it is slightly diluted with elements of Hindu Buddhism, adat and animism. There are hundreds of places in Java where spiritual energy is concentrated, which, according to legend, followers can absorb. Despite the long colonial period, missionary attempts to convert the Indonesian population to Christianity came to nothing.
