Whenever it comes to the typical in life and literature, there is an idea of the phenomena that are repetitive, the most common, those that in everyday speech are designated for simplicity by some conditional, often literary, name: Plyushkin, Bazarov, Kabanikha, Samgin, Nagulnov , Terkin - or collectively: Manilovism, Oblomovism, Foolovists, etc. However, let's think about it: do we really often meet people in life about whom we can say: “The spitting image of Sobakevich!” or: “Exactly like Pavka Korchagin!”? Not at all often; perhaps even this is a rare success - to see in the surrounding reality a type that has received a permanent residence in the history of literature; the situation reflected in the plot of a novel, story or fable; an act associated with one or another character in a work of art, i.e., typical in life.
In other words, emerging as an artistic and aesthetic reflection of the phenomena of life, typical in literature (and other forms of art) is irreducible back to its actual or potentially possible prototypes.
The lyrical hero of "Eugene Onegin" - the main face of Pushkin's novel in verse - not only embodied the unique spiritual image of the poet himself, but also appeared as a generalized image of a representative of a whole generation of advanced noble intelligentsia of the 1820s. Bazarov combined the portrait, social, psychological, intellectual features of many people seen by I. S. Turgenev: doctors, naturalists, writers - up to N. A. Dobrolyubov and N. G. Chernyshevsky. However, in the public consciousness of the 1860s. (and later) he entered as a symbolic figure of a "nihilist", a democrat-raznochinets, a "realist". Gorkovsky Pavel Vlasov is larger than the real personality of the Bolshevik Pyotr Zalomov, whose life facts are used by the writer in his work on the story "Mother", - this is a generalized image of a revolutionary worker during the first Russian revolution.
The fantastic head-boss Pobedonosikov from the play by V. V. Mayakovsky “The Bathhouse”, by the very essence of the grotesque-satirical typification chosen by the artist, cannot have real prototypes. However, the generalizing possibilities of this image, which denounces “compromise” and bureaucracy as typical and socially dangerous phenomena of Soviet reality in the 1920s, are very great. This was pointed out in 1922 by V. I. Lenin, noting Mayakovsky’s poem “The Sitting Ones” directed against bureaucracy as a fundamental political success of the poet, who talentedly revealed a new variety of an unusually tenacious “type of Russian life” - Oblomov.
Typifying the phenomena of reality (not only the characters of people, but also circumstances, actions, whole events and processes), the writer classifies various facts of life, compares them, combines them with each other. At the same time, the artist consciously emphasizes, sometimes exaggerates some features of the phenomena he has selected, omitting and obscuring others, and thereby makes the phenomena typical. Due to artistic typification, the writer manages to identify in his contemporary public life and phenomena that are historically remote from it, the most significant, socially significant features, to determine the patterns of development of the individual and society, culture and morality, to penetrate into the depths human soul. It is the ability to typify reality, to present a picture of the world in a “folded”, generalized form, that allows the art of the word, like some other types of art, to be a “textbook of life” for many generations of people (N. G. Chernyshevsky).
The first artistically perfect types of heroes, as noted by A. M. Gorky, appeared back in ancient mythology and folklore. Hercules and Prometheus, Mikula Selyaninovich and Svyatogor, Doctor Faust and Vasilisa the Wise, Ivan the Fool and Petrushka - each of them captures a bunch of worldly wisdom and the historical experience of the people. In their own way, the heroes of ancient and medieval literature were typical, the images created by the writers of the Renaissance - J. Boccaccio and F. Rabelais, W. Shakespeare and M. Cervantes - and the enlighteners - D. Defoe, J. Swift, L. Stern, Voltaire and D. Diderot.
The birth of realism creative method, allowing the artist to deeply comprehend the objective reality of the world, led to an increase in the role of the typical in fiction. According to F. Engels, “realism implies, in addition to the truthfulness of details, “the truthful reproduction of typical characters in typical circumstances.” And further: "Characters ... are quite typical in the extent to which they act," and circumstances - to the extent that they "surround them (that is, characters) and force them to act."
So, according to Engels, the originality of realistic typification is manifested in the dynamic interaction of three closely related elements: 1) typical circumstances surrounding the characters and forcing them to act; 2) typical characters acting under the influence of circumstances; 3) actions performed by characters under the pressure of circumstances and revealing, firstly, the degree of typicality of both characters and circumstances, and secondly, the ability of these characters not only to obey given circumstances, but also partially change these circumstances by their actions.
Thus, the typical in a realistic work is revealed not in the static relationship of unchanging characters and circumstances, but in the process of their dialectical self-development, i.e., in the realistic plot itself.
How bravely Tolstoy's favorite heroes - Pierre Bezukhov and Andrei Bolkonsky, Natasha Rostova and Anna Karenina, Levin and Nekhlyudov - rush towards circumstances that are sometimes catastrophic and disastrous for them! How decisively they interfere with their actions in the measured course of events, either accelerating them, or slowing them down, or trying to direct them in the direction they want. And how boldly tempt the surrounding circumstances, and with them their own fate, Dostoevsky's heroes - Raskolnikov, Myshkin, Arkady Dolgoruky, Stavrogin, the Karamazov brothers! It seems that a little more - and these circumstances, in themselves unpredictable, will break, tremble, crushed by the energy of action, thoughts and feelings of individuals frantic in their searches. But the ties that bind typical characters and typical circumstances in a realistic narrative are indissoluble; the struggle between them does not stop, and the actions of the characters in a realistic plot are truly equal to the opposition of inexorable circumstances.
Romantic typification is another matter. Let us recall the cunning, never desponding and overcoming any difficulties, d'Artagnan and the mysterious, omnipotent Count of Monte Cristo; Jean Valjean, noble and majestic in happiness and misfortune, or Lermontov's Demon, disappointed in the world. All these are exceptional characters in exceptional circumstances, conquering any circumstances with their actions.
To what extent can we talk about the reflection of unusual, unique phenomena by realist artists? Of course, in the extent to which these phenomena are understood as internally regular, as potentially developing, that is, typical, despite their singularity. So, taking shape at the turn of the 1850s and 1860s. in Russia, the social type of a raznochinets revolutionary, a democrat, was replacing the "superfluous" person who was leaving the historical stage. The singularity of the new hero of Russian reality was emphasized, each in his own way, by I. S. Turgenev in Bazarov (a lonely, tragically doomed person), N. G. Chernyshevsky in Rakhmetov (“a special person”), N. A. Nekrasov in Grisha Dobrosklonov ( to whom fate prepared except for the name people's protector Consumption and Siberia). Looking from different ideological and aesthetic points of view at the same social type at the time of its inception and formation, realist writers came to the creation of various artistic types, each of which reflected some regularity in the objective socio-historical development of Russian society at a turning point for him stage.
How to make a report on a literary topic
Getting started on the report, study the material on this topic. For example, if you are preparing a report on the dramaturgy of A. M. Gorky, determine which plays you want to include in it, re-read these plays, and then familiarize yourself with the scientific literature.
IN " Literary Encyclopedia The article about Gorky is followed by a list of books about him. In any large monograph listed there, it is easy to find links to books devoted to the analysis of the plays you need. However, wherever it comes to dramaturgy, it is better to use the "Theatrical Encyclopedia": in the bibliographic section, placed at the end of the article about this writer, you will find the title of works about his plays.
After you get acquainted with scientific materials, proceed to develop a report plan. If it is dedicated to a historically significant phenomenon, for example, the Decembrist poets, then first characterize the poets as a whole, tell about the historical environment in which the common features of their work were formed, then proceed to characterize individual poets, showing how they differed from each other. Summing up, tell us about their influence on Russian literature and social thought. However, a report on the same topic can be structured differently. Start with statements about the Decembrist poets of our contemporaries, thereby emphasizing the enduring significance of their work. Then, having explained which particular poems of these poets are closest to us and why, proceed to the analysis of the work of individual authors.
In the same way, a report on the life of a writer does not have to begin in a stereotyped way: he was born then, etc. You can start a story about a writer with some bright, memorable episode associated with him, and only then move on to presenting his biography.
Having determined for yourself the nature of the construction of the message, write the entire report or make a detailed summary of it, without rewriting citations. In the text of the report, make only references to their source. And during the report, you should have books on which you will quote, or extracts made from books that you could not take with you. Do not read a pre-written text: after all, a living word is always more interesting. Therefore, a summary is needed: it will be the “cheat sheet” that will remind the speaker of his own text. At home, you can rehearse the report to check whether you fit into the time allotted for it, and to make sure that you pronounce the text according to the outline confidently, expressively, without getting confused or straying. Do not be afraid to get carried away, deviate somewhat from the prepared text - the summary will help you not to forget the main provisions of the work if, during the presentation, its parts are rearranged.
At the end of the report, be sure to indicate what literature you used.
It is good if the report is accompanied by a demonstration of books of different editions, albums with reproductions, film fragments or transparencies, as well as listening to tape recordings or records.
Typing
the process of artistic generalization of life phenomena (human characters, circumstances, actions, events), in which the most significant, socially significant features of reality, the patterns of development of the individual and society are revealed.
"Creative "thinking" of characters lies in the fact that the writer not only singles out the aspects that are essential for him, but also strengthens, develops these aspects in the actions, statements of the newly created characters for this ... This is the process of creative typification of social characters in works of art" (G.N. Pospelov).
Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism. From allegory to iambic. - M.: Flinta, Nauka. N.Yu. Rusova. 2004
Synonyms:See what "typing" is in other dictionaries:
TYPING- TYPING, typing, pl. no, female (book). 1. Subsuming under some type (see type in 1, 2 and 3 values), classification by type. Typification of publishing houses. 2. Transformation into a type (see type in 3 meanings), embodiment in typical forms (lit., art.). ... ... Dictionary Ushakov
typing- standardization, distribution, specialization, typing, classification, classification Dictionary of Russian synonyms. typing noun. standardization Dictionary of Russian synonyms. Context 5.0 Informatics. 2012 ... Synonym dictionary
typing- and, well. typiser. 1. Embodiment by means of art of the general, typical in the particular, individual, in specific artistic images, forms. Typing skill. ALS 1. I then go to the other extreme: I want to be a photographer. No typing... Historical Dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian Language
TYPING- development of typical designs or technological processes based on technical characteristics common for a number of products (processes). One of the ways to standardize... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
typing- TYPE, roar, rue; this; owls. and nesov., that. Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 1992 ... Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov
TYPING- English. typing; German Typisierung. One of the methods of standardization, classification. Antinazi. Encyclopedia of Sociology, 2009 ... Encyclopedia of Sociology
TYPING- giving standard forms, the use of typical techniques, methods, and solutions common to many objects of processes. Raizberg B.A., Lozovsky L.Sh., Starodubtseva E.B. Modern economic dictionary. 2nd ed., rev. M .: INFRA M. 479 s .. 1999 ... Economic dictionary
typing- one of the ways to create images of the imagination, especially complex, bordering on the creative process. For example, when depicting a particular episode, an artist puts in it a lot of similar ones, making him, as it were, their representative. Dictionary of practical ... Great Psychological Encyclopedia
typing- In construction, a technical direction in design and construction, which consists in choosing the best structures, units and space-planning solutions for multiple use as standard in terms of technical and economic indicators ... ... Technical Translator's Handbook
Typing- - development of standard designs or technological processes based on technical characteristics common to a number of products (processes). [Terminological dictionary for concrete and reinforced concrete. Federal State Unitary Enterprise "Research Center" Construction "NIIZHB them. A. A. Gvozdeva, ... ... Encyclopedia of terms, definitions and explanations of building materials
TYPING- development of standard designs or technological processes based on their common technical characteristics (processes) ... Great Polytechnic Encyclopedia
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Typing
the embodiment of the typical in literature, the generalization underlying the creation of an artistic image, the process of creating the typical. T. is also understood as the synthesis in one human image of a number of typical features that the artist found in different real people, as well as the deployment, bringing to the end of those possibilities that the author saw in the known to him real people. In typical characters, in their interaction, in their connection with circumstances, the author's worldview is embodied.
Typization is a way of artistic generalization of reality, which implies individualization, originality and uniqueness of the aesthetic values created by the artist.
Typing is:
- 1. The image of the general through the singular, i.e. combination of characteristic and individual in a single artistic image.
- 2. A recurring character or a situation that is widespread.
- 3. Literary experience of creation artistic world accumulated by many generations of authors.
The concept of the topic
The theme is the subject of the image, in other words, the material taken for display in the work. In fact, the theme is the starting point for the creation of any work. As a rule, there are several themes in the work, but one is dominant. Topics are historically conditioned, as change over time, but there are also "eternal" themes that remain relevant at any time - the themes of fathers and children, good and evil, betrayal, love, etc.
A theme is a circle of phenomena and events that form the basis of a work; object of artistic image; what the author is talking about and what he wants to attract the main attention of readers.
basis inner peace works is its theme. This word goes back to the ancient Greek thema - that which is the basis.
There are three main levels of artistic themes. First, in a work of art, the eternal themes- those that worried various authors at all times: from antiquity to the present day. They can be divided into two groups: ontological are associated with being, anthropological - with man. Ontological topics are life and death, motion and stillness, light and darkness, chaos and space. It is these themes that underlie Tyutchev's philosophical lyrics, in which a picture of the eternal struggle of two opposite principles unfolds - chaos and space, day and night, light and darkness.
In the center of Pushkin's philosophical lyrics, on the contrary, are anthropological problems such as love and hate, good and evil, youth and old age, transgression and forgiveness, the purpose and meaning of life.
The second level of artistic themes is its cultural and historical aspect. It is due to the fact that the action of each work involves the image of a specific country and era. Literature is inextricably linked with history: the nature of the hero and the conflict is largely determined by the historical situation that is reflected in the work. So, F.M. Dostoevsky wrote that the plot of his novel "Crime and Punishment" "partly justifies the present" (letter to M.N. Katkov), and I.S. Turgenev accurately dated the events described in Fathers and Sons (the action of the novel, written in 1861, begins on May 20, 1859). The task of both authors was not only to pose in their works the most important universal problems and propose ways to solve them, but also to create the image of a contemporary - a man of the sixties of the XIX century, a commoner, a nihilist, an experimenter who seeks to fit all the complexity of life phenomena into the framework of his theory.
The third thematic level is associated with the depiction of the life of individual characters. Often (especially in lyrics, in autobiographical works) it is directly related to the life of the author, his worldview, experiences, personal experience. So, in the novel "A Hero of Our Time" Pechorin largely bears the imprint of both Lermontov's thoughts and Lermontov's life experience. Some fragments of Lermontov's diary entries are close to Pechorin's Journal. The work of Marina Tsvetaeva, Vladimir Mayakovsky, Sergei Yesenin, Vladimir Vysotsky is of a confessional nature.
Typing
Typification in art was mastered long before realism. The art of each era - based on the aesthetic norms of its time and in appropriate artistic forms - reflects the characteristic, or typical, features of modernity inherent in the characters. works of art, in the conditions in which these characters acted. Among critical realists, typification represents a higher degree of this principle of artistic knowledge and reflection of reality than among their predecessors. It is expressed in the combination and organic interconnection of typical characters and typical circumstances. Among the means of realistic typification, psychologism occupies not the last place, i.e. revealing the complex spiritual world - the world of thoughts and feelings of the character. But spiritual world The heroes of critical realism are socially determined. This determines a deeper degree of historicism among critical realists compared to romantics. But the characters drawn by critical realists are least of all like sociological schemes. Not so much the external detail in the description of the character - a portrait, a suit, but his psychological appearance recreates a deeply individualized image.
Speaking about typification, Balzac argued that along with the main features inherent in many people representing this or that class, this or that social stratum, the artist embodies the unique individual traits of a particular individual in his appearance, in an individualized speech portrait, clothing features , gait, in manners, gestures, and in the appearance of the inner, spiritual.
19th century realists while creating artistic images showed the hero in development, depicted the evolution of character, which was determined by the complex interaction of the individual and society. In this they sharply differed from the enlighteners and romantics. The first and striking example was Stendhal's novel "Red and Black", where the deep dynamics of the character of Julien Sorel - the main character of this work - is revealed through the stages of his biography.
Realism in literature
From the beginning of the 30s. 19th century critical realism is increasingly beginning to supplant romanticism not only in painting, but also in literature. The works of Merimee, Stendhal, Balzac appear, in which the principles of a realistic comprehension of life are formed. Critical realism in the work of Dickens, Thackeray and a number of other authors began to determine the face of the literary process in England from the beginning of the 30s. In Germany, Heine laid the foundations of critical realism in his work.
The intensive development of realistic literature in Russia has produced exceptional results. They have become an example for world literature and have not lost their artistic value still. This is "Eugene Onegin" by A. Pushkin, romantically realistic "Hero of Our Time" by M. Lermontov, " Dead Souls"N. Gogol, L. Tolstoy's novels "Anna Karenina" and "War and Peace", F. Dostoevsky's novels "Crime and Punishment", "The Idiot", "The Brothers Karamazov", "Demons", stories, novels and plays by A. Chekhov and others.
In Russian painting, realism was established by the middle of the 19th century. A close study of nature, a deep interest in the life of the people were combined with the denunciation of the feudal system. A brilliant galaxy of realist masters of the last third of the 19th century. united in a group of "wanderers" (V. G. Perov, N. N. Kramskoy, I. E. Repin, V. I. Surikov, N. N. Ge, I. I. Shishkin, A. K. Savrasov, I. I. Levitan and others).
Belinsky's criticism of the "naturalistic school" in literature played an important role in the formation of realistic literature in Russia. Belinsky praised N. V. Gogol's "Dead Souls" for its negative pathos, "denunciation of Russia", and humor. Belinsky emphasized the cognitive power of art: art "extracts its essence from reality", being not only a mirror of reality in general, but also a mirror of social life. Serving the public interest follows from the nature of art and is consistent with the freedom of the artist: he must first of all be a citizen; he is the investigator and accuser of life rolled into one. Belinsky asserted the idea of the unity of the aesthetic and the ethical. True art is always moral, and the content of art is " moral question, aesthetically solvable". The people are the primordial working stratum of the nation, because of this, art must be popular. The task of the democratic intelligentsia is to help the Russian people "grow up to themselves", and the people need to be taught, enlightened and educated.
VG Chernyshevsky saw the highest beauty not in abstract ideas like "cathedralism", but in life itself. The beautiful is life, he said, that being is beautiful in which we see life as it should be according to our concepts. Beautiful is the object that shows life in itself or reminds us of life. Chernyshevsky considered the concept of beauty to be social-class and historically conditioned. For working people, the ideal of beauty is associated with health, hence the popular ideal female beauty. In educated people, ideas about beauty can be perverted. Each historical era has its own idea of beauty. From a work of art, he demanded the reproduction of life (knowledge of life in a sensually concrete form through typification as a generalization of the essential features of the original); explanations of life; the verdict of reality and the desire to be a textbook of life.
D. I. Pisarev proclaimed the idea that aesthetics cannot become a science, since science relies on experimental knowledge, and arbitrariness reigns in art. Objectively beautiful does not exist, subjective tastes can vary ad infinitum. History leads from beauty to usefulness: how longer story humanity, the smarter it becomes and the more indifferent it is to pure beauty. Pisarev's paradoxical idea "boots are higher than Pushkin", and life is richer and higher than any art, at one time caused a heated controversy.
L. N. Tolstoy began with opposition to the utilitarian revolutionary-democratic aesthetics, but later, having experienced a spiritual crisis, he fell into a kind of general cultural nihilism. Through art, a person is "infected" with the artist's feelings. But such "infection" with other people's feelings is rarely justified. The working people live by their true ideals. Tolstoy rejected Shakespeare, Dante, Beethoven, Raphael, Michelangelo, believing that their art is wild and meaningless, because it is incomprehensible to the people. Tolstoy also rejected his own work, much more important to him seemed folk tales and other stories for the people, the main advantage of which is accessibility, understandability. Aesthetic and ethical are connected, according to Tolstoy, inversely proportionally: as soon as a person loses moral sense, so it becomes especially sensitive to the aesthetic.
The Decay of Critical Realism
Realism as an artistic style did not last long. Already at the end of the XIX century. entered the arena symbolism (from fr. symbolism, Greek symbolon- sign, symbol), openly opposed to realism. Born as literary direction in France in the 1960s and 1970s. (Baudelaire, Verlaine, A. Rimbaud, Mallarme), later symbolism grew into a pan-European cultural phenomenon, capturing theater, painting, music (writers and playwrights M. Maeterlinck, G. Hofmannsthal, O. Wilde, artists E. Munch, M. K Čiurlionis, composer A. N. Skryabin and others). In Russia, symbolism appears in the 90s. 19th century (D. S. Merezhkovsky, V. Ya. Bryusov, K. D. Balmont and others), and at the beginning of the 20th century. it was developed in the works of A. Blok, A. Bely, Vyach. Ivanova and others. The Symbolists opposed their poetics and aesthetics to realism and naturalism in art. They recognized the dualism of the real and the ideal, the opposition of the personal and the social. The spiritual and moral life of a person was interpreted by the Symbolists almost always in a religious spirit. Since the intuitive, the unconscious was considered by them to be the main thing in artistic creativity, they often turned to the ideas of romantics, mystics, to the teachings of Plato and Kant. Many symbolists insisted on the intrinsic value of art, believing that it is higher and more primary than life.
The wave of symbolism quickly faded away, but symbolism nevertheless had a significant impact on the development of art in the 20th century, especially on surrealism and expressionism.
The Russian philosopher N. A. Berdyaev, who defended a broad understanding of realism, wrote that the entire Russian literature XIX V. is outside of classicism and romanticism, because it is realistic in deep sense words. Only classicism does not belong to realism, since it is inhuman in its principle. Greek tragedy- the most perfect of all human creations, is not classicism, and therefore, it also belongs to realism.
A contemporary of Berdyaev, the philosopher GG Shpet, however, spoke sharply negatively about realism. Forties of the 19th century constitute, perhaps, the last natural style, Shpet wrote. According to the philosophical task of the time, it had to be the style of the spirit realized in reality - the style is strong, justified, strict, serious, reasonable. In fact, everyday life was often taken for reality and replaced the cult: democracy and philistinism obscured spirituality. Spiritual realism remained an unsolved problem, because the means of symbolizing such a real have not been found. The philosophy of history was dammed by empirical history. Strict rationality was replaced by dissolute prudence and prudent comfort. Naturalism, which at one time was accepted as the last word, Shpet says, was pure aesthetic nihilism. According to its idea, naturalism is a fundamental denial of not only style, but also direction. "Direction" in naturalism is replaced by teaching, morality, because the nihilist, denying useless creativity, cannot invent any justification for himself, except for a utilitarian one. Historically realism broke down in Russia in the 1940s. 19th century with Gogol. Shpet sees the salvation of art in the appearance of symbolism, opposed to realism.
- Cm.: Berdyaev N. A. O slavery and human freedom // Milestones. 1915. Vol. 4.
Essence of typification and individualization . A well-established judgment about the nature of artistic generalization is considered a significant definition of these categories: the most characteristic is borrowed from the fund of similar realities. The fact of typification gives the work an aesthetic perfection, since one phenomenon is able to reliably display a whole series of repetitive pictures of life.
Specific linkages between the individual and the typical distinguish the nature of each artistic method. One of the most important planes where differences are constantly unfolding is associated with romanticism and realism. The principles of artistic generalization become the keys with which one can enter the world of art. When the nature of the typical and the individual is determined, it should be remembered that the ways and means of artistic generalization follow from the nature of the thoughts developed by the writer, from the ideological predestination that this particular picture has.
Take, for example, the battle scenes from War and Peace. Each battle has its own internal logic, a special selection of those phenomena and processes that make up and are determined by the course of the development of the battle. And the choice of the writer falls on the epic depiction of the battle of armies through the prism of the finest details. It is possible to correlate the Borodino and Shengraben battles, and a sharply distinctive principle can be seen between them. Differences are observed in what the artist's attention is drawn to and what he has fixed. The pages of the novel contain domestic bathization, here is the way of the ordinary mass at Shengraben. The soldiers look at the kitchen with greedy eyes. They are interested in stomachs. When Borodino is portrayed, there are no battles there, there is no army either, the people are active there: “They want to attack with all the people.” All the soldiers refused the vodka prescribed before the battle, this is a generalization of the event. So detailing and generalization play their essential role in typification and individualization. The carriers of the generalization are the characters, images and the details that link them. It is necessary to analyze not only pictures, episodes, but also the totality of the smallest details. When we are talking about one hero, then one should think about the other, and what role he plays in the fate of the first. The typical and the individual recreate the world according to the laws of beauty.
The image contains a picture, an image, a unity of generalization ( typing) and specification ( individualization). So, the image of any character necessarily represents a certain collectiveness and uniqueness of the personality in all its specificity, in all its inherent features. When the images of Gobsek, Papa Grande, Plyushkin, Bubble, Glytaya, Corey Ishkamb are considered, they all sum up one generalization - the tragic type of miser, which is indicated even by their "talking" names (Gobsek is a live-throat; Bubble is immense stinginess; Glytay - greedily and hastily swallows; Ishkamba - stomach). Each of these images embodies its own unique distinctive features: features of appearance, personal habits, temperament. Just as there are no two undoubtedly identical people, so there are no two completely similar, to the point of complete similarity, images. For example, in many French novels XIX centuries, the images of the so-called "Napoleonic warehouse" function, they are very similar, they contain the same generalization. Before the researcher appears the type of Napoleon of peacetime, when he is replaced by a millionaire, Rothschild. And yet, these characters are different, they are distinguished by their unusualness. The individualization of artistic creativity is as close as possible to reality itself, to life. In science, reality is reflected only in pure generalizations, abstractions, abstractions.
So, the general definition of an image boils down to the following: an image that has the properties of generalization or typing, and on the other hand, specificity(concretization) of a single, individual fact.Without the unity of concretization (individualization) and generalization (typification), the image itself does not become the essence of artistic creation, a phenomenon of art. One-way typing is called schematism, in art it is absolutely impossible, destructive for him; and just as inadmissible, pernicious limited concretization. When literary scholars are faced with a slight individualization or a very weak general conclusion, incommensurable with the real side of the image, they call it factography. Here the particulars are extremely declarative. Real events snatched from reality itself will lead the author to an artistic failure. Let's remember the admonition of the classic: I look at the fence - I write the fence, I see a crow on the fence - I write a crow on the fence.
Literary critics in such cases speak not only about the schematism of the reconstruction of pictures, but also note the flaw, the vulnerable side of factography. In other words, this is an extreme shortcoming, deforming the image and artistry. In a truly artistic depiction, there should be no one-sidedness of generalization and concretization. Typifying moments must be in balance with specific, factual aspects, only then does an image appear, a full-fledged artistic image.
It should again be noted that in the exact sciences and journalism, schematism, abstraction, and bare generalization of thought are appropriate and even necessary, but they are contraindicated in artistic creativity. Any art, including literature, reflects reality in the form of maximum approximation to it, literature reproduces reality in the forms of life itself. In the language of literary theory, the form of life is called individualization and typification, brought to aesthetic perfection. In the exact sciences (mathematics, physics, chemistry...) and journalism there is no life itself. It takes place only in artistic creation.
It so happened that in the science of literature the concept of typification is used in relation to realistic art. There are discussions around this principle. Simultaneously with the word "typification", some critics proposed other terms, believing that if realism is associated with the concept of "typization", then in romanticism it will be "idealization". It is clear that the term idealization" is unsuccessful, it has to do with some operation of distortion, embellishment, leafing and varnishing. However, in the main direction in the study of these categories, a step has been made, a word has been uttered, and this should be welcomed, because one and the same concept cannot denote an artistic generalization inherent in different artistic methods, trends, trends. If in realism there is “typification”, then in romanticism there will be something else, and what it will be called is unknown. In any case, artistic generalizations in the art of the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and the Enlightenment require their clarification. Most of the work has been done to reveal the nature of realistic generalization, while in other areas there is much, much to be desired.
Fiction as a way of typification and individualization in literature . Artistic creativity without fiction it is impossible, it cannot exist. The ability to fantasize also distinguishes scientists, "exact" science without creative imagination is unthinkable.
A sure sign of artistic talent is the ability to conjecture, invent, and imagine. This process follows from the nature of thinking in images. And typing becomes its most important law. Art does not copy, but recreates life, displays it in such a way that it appears clearer and more beautiful. There are opposite relations between the image and real matter. On the one hand, they correspond to each other, on the other hand, they differ from each other, because every image is not a copy, not reality, but a fact erected in the pearl of creation, more similar to itself than life.
Fiction is based on law of otherness, A law of truth, which makes itself felt through otherness. Thus, the Shchedrin mayor has an organ instead of a head, but this grotesque generalization is true. The essence of typification is that a typical image contains a unique and integral alloy, through which the essence shines through. These relations, which do not repeat reality, are affirmed only on the basis of creative imagination.
What is the function of fiction? Art does not repeat reality, but reflects the most essential in it, it tells not about what was or is, but how it happens in the world. It "happens" and creates familiar strangers. The model of artistic fantasy expresses contradictory connections: on the one hand, similar, on the other, distinctive. The writer does not copy or repeat life, but explores her. He sometimes tramples on the truth of a fact in the name of the truth of life, he must break with the small truth in the name of the big truth. The basis of fiction is always something that is connected with the human ability to extract the essential meaning from the real-given.
Fiction is that special way in which a non-logical, non-artistic abstraction is created, which is usually called the "image of types." This is an intrinsic feature departure» into the realm of art from reality. The ability to invent is a specific gift, it reveals the writer's natural inclinations to abstract, to get ahead of reality. Fiction is characterized by exactly what could be called the gift of transformation, reincarnation, being in the dimension of someone else's life, comprehending it, evaluating and recreating it in forms inherent in reality itself. Hence, writers quite often manifest artistic and creative hallucinations. Many authors say that they hear the voices of their heroes, even feel their will, which seems to guide them with a pen. Let us recall Vronsky, who, contrary to his original plan, shoots himself; Tatyana "depressed the thing" - jumped out to get married; Balzac fainted, and when asked about the reason, he replied: Father Goriot had just died; Flaubert could taste the arsenic in his mouth. This does not mean at all that all writers should experience hallucinations, but one should always write in such a way that “a piece of meat remains on the tip of the pen.” If not, it will be cold and unconvincing.
This quality should distinguish not only the classics, but also less gifted artists. Each writer reveals a fiction of his own character and his own special measure. Some authors create by imagining according to the actual canvas, others rise too far from the earth in their imagination. And the point here is not only in the creative personality and talent of the artist. Both the memory of the genre and the manner of creative development author. However, even in those cases when the “departure” from reality is very high, for a real artist it never turns into a complete departure from the law of artistic fiction. All that remains is what constitutes the essence of cognition and penetration into life, into its interior.
