1. The historical process of the development of Dutch painting in the 17th century

We can safely say that in no other country has painting experienced such a rapid and intense upsurge, had such exceptional distribution, such amazing popularity, has not entered so deeply into the life of the widest sections of society. Within a short period of time, in just half a century, an innumerable number of painters appear; outstanding artists number in the dozens. The profession of a painter is losing its exclusivity and becoming one of the most common. Paintings are acquired by the widest sections of the population - not only nobles and representatives of the big bourgeoisie, but also poor burghers, artisans, even wealthy peasants. The houses of the townspeople were full of paintings, little-known people owned the most valuable collections. Such a wide distribution of paintings was facilitated by their incredible abundance and, as a result, their extreme cheapness. The paintings were sold not only through numerous resellers, but also at special auctions, at village fairs; the artists themselves very often used their works as a means of payment in monetary settlements.

However, it must be borne in mind that the abundance and wide distribution of paintings was due not only to the general economic and cultural upsurge of the country and the natural desire of representatives of the wealthy classes to decorate their homes with works of art. In a rapidly developing capitalist society, a new attitude is being established towards art. Paintings are valued not only as unique, unrepeatable works of art, but also as material values, as a commodity; they are used for investing money, for speculation. The artist in Holland no longer depended to the same extent as in other countries on orders from the royal court, noble feudal lords, the church, or, finally, wealthy patrons. The Dutch painter works primarily for the market; he is as much a seller of his goods as a merchant or an artisan. Formally, the Dutch artist is free in his art, but market demand, reflecting the tastes of the ruling class, predetermined the artist's dependence on bourgeois society. The history of Dutch art has repeatedly shown how a master who went against the prevailing tastes was doomed to poverty and death.

Dutch artists are usually the sons of artisans, merchants, officials; often they also perceived the profession of a painter by inheritance from their fathers and grandfathers. Due to competition, falling prices, lack of demand, painting classes could not always feed them, and artists had to look for an additional source of income in another profession. So, for example, Jacob van Ruysdael was a doctor, Sten was an innkeeper, Hobbema was an excise official, Vermeer, towards the end of his life, was engaged in the sale of paintings.

In Dutch art, there were a large number of different artistic movements, usually associated with certain art centers. The formation of art schools in various Dutch cities was due to various reasons, primarily the peculiarities of the development of individual cultural centers. Thus, in Catholic Utrecht, painters were strongly influenced by Italian art, while in cities characterized by the rapid development of capitalism and bourgeois culture, new trends triumphed. national character. Of considerable importance in the formation of art schools were the largest Dutch painters, who united around themselves a large number of students and followers; this is how the school of Frans Hals in Harlem, the school of Rembrandt in Amsterdam, was formed, and this is how their followers in Delft united around Fabricius and Vermeer. Finally, the artistic traditions rooted in individual centers also had a certain significance. However, the isolation of these art schools should not be exaggerated; in Holland, where many cities are located at a short distance from each other, and the painters often changed their place of residence, there was a close relationship between artists of different schools.

The historical process of development of Dutch painting of the 17th century can be divided into three main stages: the period of formation (1609-1640), the period of prosperity (1640-1670), the period of decline (after 1670).

The period of formation of Dutch painting is marked by a variety of art movements that develop in parallel, or mutually intertwined and warring with each other. New progressive tendencies, already at their origin, are compelled to make their way to a stubborn struggle against the conservative currents that had taken shape as early as the end of the 16th century—mainly against academicism and mannerism.

The first quarter of the 17th century was a transitional period for Dutch painting, when the features noted above had not yet been fully developed and a national school was gradually emerging. visual arts. Thematically, the main types of Dutch painting - landscape and everyday genre - were still little differentiated. Genre and landscape elements in the paintings of that time are often equivalent. There is a lot of conditional in the image of nature, both in the general construction of the landscape and in coloring.

The main features of the Dutch school are consistently and clearly manifested in the landscape, which is unusually developed in this school. The artists abandoned the traditional scheme of a panoramic landscape with a high horizon line, embracing a variety of motifs, and turned to simple, unsophisticated views of their native nature. On the other hand, they created a landscape in the proper sense of the word, separating it from landscape-genre compositions that existed until then.

The Dutch landscape comes to maturity around 1630. Approximately twenty following years are characterized by the extreme simplicity of the general concept and the absence of any decorative effect. For an ordinary Dutch artist of this time, there are no spectacular or non-spectacular motives of nature. With love and truth, he captures the most common and at the same time typical of his homeland: desert dunes, modest villages, canals with quietly sliding boats of fishermen or the same canals in winter, animated by skaters.

The flat nature of Holland's nature also determined the usual landscape for her painting, which is not limited by anything from the edges, has a very low horizon and diverts more than two-thirds of the painting area to the sky. Blue-grey, misty or cloudy, this sky gives the impression of endless space and organizes other parts of the composition into a single whole. The organization of this unity is also facilitated by the exceptional ability of the Dutch masters to convey lighting, moist air, softening all the sharpness of the outlines of objects. Attention to atmospheric phenomena finally accustoms the Dutch to avoid flowery coloring. By subordinating it to a general, somewhat neutral tone, they achieve the final fusion of all elements of the landscape and picturesque integrity in the depiction of nature.

At the end of the 17th century, Dutch art is in crisis, realistic tendencies are weakening. An increasing role is played by foreign influences, in particular French and Italian. Few painters remain in their former positions, but their art does not reach the level of the masters of the heyday.

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Holland. 17th century The country is experiencing unprecedented prosperity. The so-called "Golden Age". At the end of the 16th century, several provinces of the country achieved independence from Spain.

Now the Protestant Netherlands went their own way. And Catholic Flanders (now Belgium) under the wing of Spain - its own.

In independent Holland, almost no one needed religious painting. The Protestant Church did not approve of the luxury of decoration. But this circumstance "played into the hands" of secular painting.

Literally every inhabitant of the new country woke up love for this type of art. The Dutch wanted to see their own life in the pictures. And the artists willingly went to meet them.

Never before has the surrounding reality been depicted so much. Ordinary people, ordinary rooms and the most ordinary breakfast of a city dweller.

Realism flourished. Until the 20th century, he will be a worthy competitor to academism with its nymphs and Greek goddesses.

These artists are called "small" Dutch. Why? The paintings were small in size, because they were created for small houses. So, almost all paintings by Jan Vermeer are no more than half a meter high.

But I like the other version better. In the Netherlands in the 17th century, a great master, a “big” Dutchman, lived and worked. And all the others were "small" in comparison with him.

We are talking, of course, about Rembrandt. Let's start with him.

1. Rembrandt (1606-1669)

Rembrandt. Self-portrait at the age of 63. 1669 National Gallery of London

Rembrandt had a chance to experience the widest range of emotions during his life. Therefore, in his early works so much fun and bravado. And so many complex feelings - in the later ones.

Here he is young and carefree in the picture " Prodigal son in a tavern." On her knees is Saskia's beloved wife. He is a popular artist. Orders are pouring in.

Rembrandt. The prodigal son in the tavern. 1635 Old Masters Gallery, Dresden

But all this will disappear in some 10 years. Saskia will die of consumption. Popularity will disappear like smoke. A large house with a unique collection will be taken away for debts.

But the same Rembrandt will appear, which will remain for centuries. The naked feelings of the characters. Their most secret thoughts.

2. Frans Hals (1583-1666)

Frans Hals. Self-portrait. 1650 Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

Frans Hals is one of the greatest portrait painters of all time. Therefore, I would also rank him among the "big" Dutch.

In Holland at that time it was customary to commission group portraits. So there was a lot of similar works depicting people working together: shooters of the same guild, doctors of the same town, managing a nursing home.

In this genre, Hals stands out the most. After all, most of these portraits looked like a deck of cards. People sit at the table with the same expression on their faces and just look. Hals was different.

Look at his group portrait "Arrows of the Guild of St. George".

Frans Hals. Arrows of the Guild of St. George. 1627 Frans Hals Museum, Haarlem, Netherlands

Here you will not find a single repetition in posture or facial expression. At the same time, there is no chaos here. There are many characters, but no one seems superfluous. Thanks to the surprisingly correct arrangement of figures.

Yes, and in a single portrait, Hals surpassed many artists. His models are natural. People from high society in his paintings are devoid of far-fetched grandeur, and models from the bottom do not look humiliated.

And his characters are very emotional: they smile, laugh, gesticulate. Like, for example, this "Gypsy" with a sly look.

Frans Hals. Gypsy. 1625-1630

Hals, like Rembrandt, ended his life in poverty. For the same reason. His realism went against the tastes of customers. Who wanted to embellish their appearance. Hals did not go for outright flattery, and thus signed his own sentence - "Oblivion".

3. Gerard Terborch (1617-1681)

Gerard Terborch. Self-portrait. 1668 Mauritshuis Royal Gallery, The Hague, Netherlands

Terborch was a master of the domestic genre. Rich and not very burghers talk slowly, ladies read letters, and a procuress watches courtship. Two or three closely spaced figures.

It was this master who developed the canons of the domestic genre. Which will then be borrowed by Jan Vermeer, Pieter de Hooch and many other "small" Dutch.

Gerard Terborch. A glass of lemonade. 1660s. State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg

A Glass of Lemonade is one of Terborch's famous works. It shows another advantage of the artist. Incredibly realistic image of the fabric of the dress.

Terborch also has unusual works. Which speaks of his desire to go beyond the requirements of customers.

His "Grinder" shows the life of the poorest inhabitants of Holland. We are used to seeing cozy courtyards and clean rooms in the pictures of the “small” Dutch. But Terborch dared to show unattractive Holland.

Gerard Terborch. Grinder. 1653-1655 Berlin State Museums

As you understand, such works were not in demand. And they are a rare occurrence even in Terborch.

4. Jan Vermeer (1632-1675)

Jan Vermeer. Artist's workshop. 1666-1667 Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

What Jan Vermeer looked like is not known for certain. It is only obvious that in the painting "Artist's Workshop" he depicted himself. True from the back.

Therefore, it is surprising that a new fact from the life of the master has recently become known. It is associated with his masterpiece "Street of Delft".

Jan Vermeer. Delft street. 1657 Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam

It turned out that Vermeer spent his childhood on this street. The house pictured belonged to his aunt. She raised her five children there. She may be sitting on the doorstep sewing while her two children are playing on the sidewalk. Vermeer himself lived in the house opposite.

But more often he depicted the interior of these houses and their inhabitants. It would seem that the plots of the paintings are very simple. Here is a pretty lady, a wealthy city dweller, checking the work of her scales.

Jan Vermeer. Woman with weights. 1662-1663 National Gallery of Art, Washington

How did Vermeer stand out among thousands of other "small" Dutch?

He was consummate master Sveta. In the painting “Woman with Scales”, the light gently envelops the face of the heroine, fabrics and walls. Giving the image an unknown spirituality.

And the compositions of Vermeer's paintings are carefully verified. You will not find a single extra detail. It is enough to remove one of them, the picture will “crumble”, and the magic will go away.

All this was not easy for Vermeer. Such amazing quality required painstaking work. Only 2-3 paintings per year. As a result, the inability to feed the family. Vermeer also worked as an art dealer, selling works by other artists.

5. Pieter de Hooch (1629-1684)

Peter de Hooch. Self-portrait. 1648-1649 Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

Hoch is often compared to Vermeer. They worked at the same time, there was even a period in the same city. And in one genre - household. In Hoch, we also see one or two figures in cozy Dutch courtyards or rooms.

Open doors and windows make the space of his paintings multi-layered and entertaining. And the figures fit into this space very harmoniously. As, for example, in his painting "Servant with a girl in the yard."

Peter de Hooch. Maid with a girl in the yard. 1658 London National Gallery

Until the 20th century, Hoch was highly valued. But few people noticed the few works of his competitor Vermeer.

But in the 20th century, everything changed. Hoch's glory faded. However, it is difficult not to recognize his achievements in painting. Few people could combine the environment and people so competently.

Peter de Hooch. Card players in the sun room. 1658 Royal Art Collection, London

Please note that in a modest house on the canvas "Card Players" there is a picture in an expensive frame.

This once again speaks of how popular painting was among ordinary Dutch. Pictures adorned every house: the house of a wealthy burgher, a modest city dweller, and even a peasant.

6. Jan Steen (1626-1679)

Jan Stan. Self-portrait with a lute. 1670s Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, Madrid

Jan Steen is perhaps the most cheerful "small" Dutchman. But loving moralizing. He often depicted taverns or poor houses in which vice was found.

Its main characters are revelers and ladies of easy virtue. He wanted to entertain the viewer, but implicitly warn him against a vicious life.

Jan Stan. Chaos. 1663 Art History Museum, Vienna

Stan also has quieter works. Like, for example, "Morning toilet". But here, too, the artist surprises the viewer with too frank details. There are traces of stocking gum, and not an empty chamber pot. And somehow it’s not at all the way the dog lies right on the pillow.

Jan Stan. Morning toilet. 1661-1665 Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

But despite all the frivolity, Stan's color schemes are very professional. In this he surpassed many of the "small Dutch". See how the red stocking goes perfectly with the blue jacket and bright beige rug.

7. Jacobs Van Ruysdael (1629-1682)

Portrait of Ruisdael. Lithograph from a 19th century book.

"Burger" baroque in Dutch paintingXVII V. - the image of everyday life (P. de Hoch, Vermeer). "Luxury" still life Kalf. Group portrait and its features in Hals and Rembrandt. Interpretation of mythological and biblical subjects by Rembrandt.

Dutch art of the 17th century

In the 17th century Holland became a model capitalist country. She conducted extensive colonial trade, she had a powerful fleet, shipbuilding was one of the leading industries. Protestantism (Calvinism as its most severe form), which completely replaced the influence of the Catholic Church, led to the fact that the clergy in Holland did not have such an influence on art as in Flanders, and even more so in Spain or Italy. In Holland, the church did not play the role of a customer of works of art: temples were not decorated with altarpieces, for Calvinism rejected any hint of luxury; Protestant churches were simple in architecture and not decorated in any way inside.

The main achievement of the Dutch art of the XVIII century. - in easel painting. Man and nature were objects of observation and depiction by Dutch artists. household painting becomes one of the leading genres, the creators of which in history received the name "small Dutch". Paintings on gospel and biblical scenes are also represented, but not to the same extent as in other countries. Holland never had connections with Italy and classical art did not play the same role as in Flanders.

The mastery of realistic tendencies, the formation of a certain range of topics, the differentiation of genres as a single process, were completed by the 20s of the 17th century. History of Dutch painting of the 17th century. perfectly demonstrates the evolution of the work of one of the largest portrait painters of Holland, Frans Hals (circa 1580-1666). In the 10-30s, Hals worked a lot in the genre of group portraits. From the canvases of these years, cheerful, energetic, enterprising people look, confident in their abilities and in the future (“St. Adrian’s Shooting Guild”, 1627 and 1633;

The Shooting Guild of St. George", 1627).

Individual portraits of Khals are sometimes called genre portraits by researchers due to the special specificity of the image. Hulse's sketchy style, his bold writing, when a brushstroke sculpts both form and volume and conveys color.

In the portraits of Khals of the late period (50-60s), the carefree prowess, energy, and pressure in the characters of the depicted persons disappear. But it is in the late period of creativity that Hals reaches the pinnacle of mastery and creates the most profound works. The color of his paintings becomes almost monochrome. Two years before his death, in 1664, Hals again returned to the group portrait. He paints two portraits - regents and regents of a nursing home, in one of which he himself found shelter at the end of his life. In the portrait of the regents, there is no camaraderie of the previous compositions, the models are disunited, powerless, their eyes are cloudy, devastation is written on their faces.

The art of Hals was of great importance for its time, it had an impact on the development of not only the portrait, but also the genre of everyday life, landscape, still life.

The landscape genre of Holland in the 17th century is especially interesting. Holland is portrayed by Jan van Goyen (1596-1656) and Salomon van Ruisdael (1600/1603-1670).

landscapes with waterfalls (“Waterfall”) or a romantic landscape with a cemetery (“Jewish Cemetery”).

Nature in Ruisdael appears in dynamics, in eternal renewal.

In close connection with the Dutch landscape is the animalistic genre. Albert Cuyp's favorite motif is cows at a watering place ("Sunset on the River", "Cows on the Bank of a Stream").

In the 20-30s of the XVII century. the Dutch created a special type of small, small-figure painting. 40-60s - the heyday of painting, glorifying the calm burgher life of Holland, a measured everyday existence.

Adrian van Ostade (1610-1685) depicts at first the shady sides of the life of the peasantry ("The Fight").

Since the 1940s, in his work, satirical notes are increasingly replaced by humorous ones (“In a village tavern”, 1660).

Sometimes these little pictures are colored with a great lyrical feeling. By right, Ostade's masterpiece of painting is considered to be his "Painter in the Studio" (1663), in which the artist glorifies creative work.

But main theme"Small Dutch" is still not a peasant, but a burgher life. Usually these are images without any fascinating plot. The most entertaining storyteller in paintings of this kind was Jan Stan (1626-1679) ("Revelers", "The backgammon game"). Gerard Terborch (1617-1681) achieved even greater skill in this.

The interior becomes especially poetic among the "small Dutch". The real singer of this theme was Pieter de Hooch (1629-1689). His rooms with a half-open window, shoes thrown inadvertently or a broom left are often depicted without a human figure.

A new stage of genre painting begins in the 50s and is associated with the so-called Delft school, with the names of artists such as Karel Fabritius, Emmanuel de Witte and Jan Vermeer, known in art history as Vermeer of Delft (1632-1675). Vermeer's paintings seem to be in no way original. These are the same images of a frozen burgher life: reading a letter, a gentleman and a lady talking, maids engaged in a simple household, views of Amsterdam or Delft. These pictures, which are simple in action: “Girl reading a letter”,

"The Cavalier and the Lady at the Spinet",

“The Officer and the Laughing Girl”, etc., are full of spiritual clarity, peace and quiet.

The main advantages of Vermeer as an artist are in the transmission of light and air. The dissolution of objects in a light-air environment, the ability to create this illusion, first of all, determined the recognition and fame of Vermeer precisely in the 19th century.

Wermeer did what no one else did in the 17th century: he painted landscapes from nature (“Street”, “View of Delft”).

They can be called the first examples of plein air painting.

The pinnacle of Dutch realism, the result of the pictorial achievements of the Dutch culture of the 17th century, is the work of Rembrandt. Harmensz van Rijn Rembrandt (1606-1669) was born in Leiden. In 1632, Rembrandt left for Amsterdam, the center of the artistic culture of Holland, which naturally attracted the young artist. The 30s are the time of the highest glory, the path to which was opened for the painter by a large commissioned painting of 1632 - a group portrait, also known as "Anatomy of Dr. Tulp", or "Anatomy Lesson".

In 1634, Rembrandt marries a girl from a wealthy family - Saskia van Uylenborch. The happiest period of his life begins. He becomes a famous and fashionable artist.

This whole period is covered with romance. Rembrandt's attitude of these years is most clearly conveyed by the famous "Self-portrait with Saskia on his knees" (circa 1636). The whole canvas is permeated with frank joy of life, jubilation.

Baroque language is closest to the expression of high spirits. And Rembrandt in this period is largely influenced by the Italian Baroque.

In complex foreshortenings, the characters of the 1635 painting "The Sacrifice of Abraham" appear before us. The composition is extremely dynamic, built according to all the rules of baroque.

In the same 30s, Rembrandt for the first time began to seriously engage in graphics, especially etching. Rembrandt's etchings are mostly biblical and gospel subjects, but in drawing, as a true Dutch artist, he often refers to the genre as well. At the turn of the early period of the artist's work and his creative maturity, one of his most famous paintings, known as The Night Watch (1642), is presented to us - a group portrait of Captain Banning Cock's rifle company.

He expanded the scope of the genre, introducing more historical picture: On an alarm signal, Banning Cock's squad sets out on a campaign. Some are calm, confident, others are excited in anticipation of what is to come, but all have an expression of common energy, patriotic enthusiasm, the triumph of civic spirit.

A group portrait under the brush of Rembrandt grew into heroic image eras and societies.

The painting had already darkened so much that it was considered to be an image of a night scene, hence its incorrect name. The shadow that lies from the figure of the captain on the light clothes of the lieutenant proves that this is not night, but day.

With the death of Saskia in the same year 1642, Rembrandt's natural break with patrician circles alien to him occurs.

The 40-50s are the time of creative maturity. During this period, he often turns to old works in order to remake them in a new way. This was the case, for example, with Danae, which he painted back in 1636. Turning to the painting in the 40s, the artist strengthened emotional condition.

He rewrote the central part with the heroine and the maid. Giving Danae a new gesture of a raised hand, he told her great excitement, an expression of joy, hope, an appeal.

The last 16 years are the most tragic years of Rembrandt's life; he is broke, has no orders. But these years are full of amazing creative activity, as a result of which picturesque images are created, exceptional in terms of monumentality of characters and spirituality, deeply philosophical works. Even small-sized works by Rembrandt of these years create an impression of extraordinary grandeur and true monumentality. Color acquires sonority and intensity. His colors seem to radiate light. The portraits of the late Rembrandt are very different from the portraits of the 30s and even 40s. These are extremely simple (half-length or generational) images of people who are close to the artist in their inner structure. Rembrandt achieved the greatest subtlety of characteristics in self-portraits, of which about a hundred have come down to us. The final in the history of the group portrait was Rembrandt's depiction of the elders of the cloth maker's shop - the so-called "Sindiki" (1662), where Rembrandt created living and at the same time different human types with stingy means, but most importantly, he managed to convey a sense of spiritual union, mutual understanding and relationships of people.

In the years of maturity (mainly in the 50s), Rembrandt created his best etchings. As an etcher, he knows no equal in world art. In all of them, the images have a deep philosophical meaning; they tell about the secrets of being, about the tragedy of human life.

He does a lot of drawing. Rembrandt left behind 2000 drawings. These are sketches from nature, sketches for paintings and preparations for etchings.

In the last quarter of the XVII century. the decline of the Dutch school of painting begins, the loss of its national identity, and from the beginning of the 18th century the end of the great era of Dutch realism begins.

In the 17th century Holland became a model capitalist country. She conducted extensive colonial trade, she had a powerful fleet, shipbuilding was one of the leading industries. Even English shipowners often made orders to Dutch shipyards. Hard-working farmers, the Dutch managed to create such a dairy farm in relatively small areas of the earth that they became famous in the pan-European market. At the end of the XVII - beginning of the XVIII century. with the entry of England and France into the international trading arena, Holland loses its economic and political importance, but throughout the 17th century it was the leading economic power in Europe.

At the same time, Holland during this period was also the most important center of European culture. The struggle for national independence, the victory of the burghers determined the character of Dutch culture in the 17th century. Protestantism (Calvinism as its most severe form), which completely replaced the influence of the Catholic Church, led to the fact that the clergy in Holland did not have such an influence on art as in Flanders, and even more so in Spain or Italy. Leiden University was the center of freethinking. The spiritual atmosphere favored the development of philosophy, the natural sciences, and mathematics. The absence of a wealthy patrician and Catholic clergy had enormous consequences for the development of Dutch art. The Dutch artists had another customer: the burghers, the Dutch magistrate, who adorned not palaces and villas, but modest dwellings or public buildings - therefore, the paintings in Holland of this time do not have the same dimensions as the canvases of Rubens or Jordans, and decide mainly easel, but non-monumental-decorative tasks. In Holland, the church did not play the role of a customer of works of art: temples were not decorated with altarpieces, for Calvinism rejected any hint of luxury; Protestant churches were simple in architecture and not decorated in any way inside.

The main achievement of the Dutch Art XVIII century - in easel painting. Man and nature were objects of observation and depiction by Dutch artists. Diligence, diligence, love for order and cleanliness are reflected in the paintings depicting the Dutch way of life. Everyday painting becomes one of the leading genres, the creators of which in history received the name “Little Dutchmen”, either for the unpretentiousness of the plots, or because of the small size of the paintings, or maybe for both. The Dutch wanted to see the whole diverse world in pictures. Hence the wide range of painting of this century, "narrow specialization" in certain types of subjects: portrait and landscape, still life and animalistic genre. There was even a specialization within the genre: evening and night landscapes (Art van der Neer), “night fires” (Ekbert van der Poel), winter landscapes (Averkamp), ships in the roadstead (J. Porcellis), flat landscape (F. Konink); still lifes - “breakfasts” (P. Klas and V. Heda) or images of flowers and fruits (B. van der Ast, J. van Huysum), church interiors (A. de Lorm), etc. Paintings on evangelical and biblical subjects are presented also, but not to the same extent as in other countries, as well as ancient mythology. Holland never had connections with Italy and classical art did not play the same role as in Flanders. The mastery of realistic tendencies, the formation of a certain range of topics, the differentiation of genres as a single process, were completed by the 20s of the 17th century. But in whatever genre the Dutch masters work, everywhere they find poetic beauty in the ordinary, they know how to spiritualize and elevate the world of material things.

History of Dutch painting of the 17th century. perfectly demonstrates the evolution of the work of one of the largest portrait painters of Holland, Frans Hals (circa 1580-1666). In the 10-30s, Hals worked a lot in the genre of group portraits. This is basically a depiction of rifle guilds - corporations of officers for the defense and protection of cities. The burghers wanted to be immortalized on the canvas, they made a certain contribution for the right to be depicted, and the artist had to remember about equal attention to each model. But it is not portrait resemblance that captivates us in these works of Hals. They express the ideals of the young republic, the feeling of freedom, equality and camaraderie. From the canvases of these years, cheerful, energetic, enterprising people look, confident in their abilities and in the future (“St. Adrian’s Shooting Guild”, 1627 and 1633; “St. George’s Shooting Guild”, 1627). Khale depicts them usually in a comradely feast, in a cheerful feast. The large size of the horizontally elongated composition, the wide confident writing, the intense, saturated colors (yellow, red, blue, etc.) create a monumental image. The artist acts as a historiographer of an entire era.

Individual portraits of Khals are sometimes called genre portraits by researchers due to the special specificity of the image, a certain method of characterization. There is something unsteady about Heithuizen's swaying posture, his expression as if about to change. The portrait of a drunken old woman, the “Harlem witch”, the owner of the tavern Malle Babbe (early 30s), with an owl on her shoulder and a beer mug in her hand, bears the features of a genre painting. Hulse's sketchy style, his bold writing, when a brushstroke sculpts both form and volume and conveys color; a brushstroke now bold, pasty, thickly covering the canvas, now allowing you to trace the tone of the ground, accentuating one detail and understatement of another, internal dynamics, the ability to determine the whole by one hint - these are the typical features of Hals' handwriting.

F. Hals. Shooting Guild of St. George. Fragment. Haarlem, Hals Museum

F Hulse Portrait of Willem van Heytheizen. Brussels, Museum of Fine Arts

G. Terborch. Concert. Berlin, museum

In the portraits of Khals of the late period (50-60s), the carefree prowess, energy, and pressure in the characters of the depicted persons disappear. In the Hermitage male portrait, for all the impressiveness of the figure, even some swagger, fatigue and sadness can be traced. These features are further enhanced in a brilliantly painted portrait of a man in a wide-brimmed hat from the museum in Kassel (60s). Hale ceases to be popular during these years, because it never flatters and turns out to be alien to the reborn tastes of wealthy customers that have lost their democratic spirit. But it is in the late period of his work that Halé reaches the pinnacle of mastery and creates the most profound works. The color of his paintings becomes almost monochrome. It is usually dark, black attire, with a white collar and cuffs, and a dark olive background color. The laconic pictorial palette is built, however, on the finest gradations.

Two years before his death, in 1664, Halé returned to the group portrait. He paints two portraits - regents and regents of a nursing home, in one of which he himself found shelter at the end of his life. In the portrait of the regents, there is no camaraderie of the previous compositions, the models are disunited, powerless, their eyes are cloudy, devastation is written on their faces. The gloomy coloring (black, gray and white) is especially stressed by a pinkish-red spot of fabric on the knee of one of the regents. So, in the ninth decade, a sick, lonely and impoverished artist creates his most dramatic and most exquisite works of skill.

V. Kheda. Breakfast with blackberry pie. Dresden, gallery

The art of Hals was of great importance for its time, it had an impact on the development of not only the portrait, but also the genre of everyday life, landscape, still life.

The landscape genre of Holland in the 17th century is especially interesting. This is not nature at all, some overall picture of the universe, but the national, namely the Dutch landscape, which we also recognize in modern Holland: the famous windmills, desert dunes, canals with boats sliding along them in summer and with skaters in winter. The air is saturated with moisture. The gray sky occupies a large place in the compositions. This is how Holland is portrayed by Jan van Goyen (1596-1656) and Salomon van Ruisdael (1600/1603-1670).

The heyday of landscape painting in the Dutch school dates back to the middle of the 17th century. The greatest master of the realistic landscape was Jacob van Ruysdael (1628/29-1682), an artist of inexhaustible imagination. His works are usually full of deep drama, whether he depicts forest thickets ("Forest swamp"), landscapes with waterfalls ("Waterfall") or a romantic landscape with a cemetery ("Jewish cemetery"). Nature in Ruisdael appears in dynamics, in eternal renewal. Even the simplest motifs of nature acquire a monumental character under the artist's brush. Ruisdael tends to combine careful writing with great vitality, with a synthetic image.

P. de Hach. Yard. London, National Gallery

Only Jan Porcellis (circa 1584-1632) was engaged in seascape (marina). Next to the realistic, purely Dutch landscape, another direction existed at that time: landscapes of the Italian character, animated by mythological characters, figures of people and animals.

In close connection with the Dutch landscape is the animalistic genre. Albert Cuyp's favorite motif is cows at a watering place ("Sunset on the River", "Cows on the Bank of a Stream"). Paul Potter, in addition to general plans, likes to depict one or more animals close-up against the backdrop of a landscape (“Dog on a Chain”).

Brilliant development reaches a still life. The Dutch still life, in contrast to the Flemish, is modest in size and motives for paintings of an intimate nature. Pieter Claesz (circa 1597-1661), Billem Head (1594-1680/82) most often depicted the so-called breakfasts: dishes with ham or pie on a relatively modestly served table. In a skillful arrangement, objects are shown in such a way that one feels, as it were, the inner life of things (it was not for nothing that the Dutch called the still life "stilliven" - "quiet life", and not "nature morte" - "dead nature". True, as I. V. Linnik correctly noted, "quiet life" is a later poetic translation (in the language of the 17th century it meant "immovable model", which is more in line with the practical acumen and business approach of the Dutch of that time). The coloring is restrained and refined (Heda. "Breakfast with Lobster", 1648; class. "Still Life with a Candle", 1627).

Wermeer of Delft. Girl's head. Fragment. The Hague, Mauritshuis

With the change in the life of Dutch society in the second half of the 17th century, with the gradual increase in the desire of the bourgeoisie for aristocratization and the loss of its former democracy, the nature of still lifes also changes. Kheda's "breakfasts" give way to Kalf's sumptuous "desserts". Simple utensils are being replaced by marble tables, carpet tablecloths, silver goblets, mother-of-pearl shells, and crystal glasses. Kalf achieves amazing virtuosity in conveying the texture of peaches, grapes, and crystal surfaces. The single tone of the still lifes of the former period is replaced by a rich gradation of the most exquisite colorful shades.

Dutch still life - one of the artistic realizations of the most important topic Dutch art - themes privacy ordinary person. This theme is fully embodied in the genre picture. In the 20-30s of the XVII century. the Dutch created a special type of small, small-figure painting. 40-60s - the heyday of painting, glorifying the calm burgher life of Holland, a measured everyday existence. But even in the circle of Frans Hals, where Adrian Brouwer, the Flemish painter, also developed, a distinct interest in themes from peasant life was formed. Adrian van Ostade (1610-1685) depicts at first the shady sides of the life of the peasantry ("The Fight"). Since the 1940s, in his work, satirical notes are increasingly replaced by humorous ones (“In a village tavern”, 1660). Sometimes these little pictures are colored with a great lyrical feeling. By right, Ostade's masterpiece of painting is considered to be his "Painter in the Studio" (1663), in which the artist glorifies creative work, without resorting to either a declaration or pathos.

But the main theme of the "small Dutch" is still not a peasant, but a burgher life. Usually these are images without any fascinating plot. In the paintings of this genre, as if nothing happens. A woman is reading a letter, a gentleman and a lady are playing music. Or they just met and the first feeling is born between them, but this is only outlined, the viewer is given the right to speculate himself.

The most entertaining storyteller in paintings of this kind was Jan Stan (1626-1679) ("Revelers", "The backgammon game"). The slow rhythm of life, the regularity of the daily routine, a certain monotony of existence is perfectly conveyed by Gabriel Metsu (1629-1667, "Breakfast", "Sick and Doctor"),

Gerard Terborch (1617-1681) achieved even greater skill in this. He started with the most democratic plots (The Grinder), but with the change in the tastes of the Dutch burghers, he moved on to more aristocratic models and had great success here.

The interior becomes especially poetic among the "small Dutch". The life of the Dutch proceeded mainly in the house. Pieter de Hooch (1629-1689) became a real singer of this theme. His rooms with a half-open window, with shoes thrown inadvertently or a broom left behind are often depicted without a human figure, but a person is invisibly present here, there is always a connection between the interior and people. When he depicts people, he deliberately emphasizes a certain frozen rhythm, depicts life as if frozen, as motionless as the things themselves (“The Mistress and the Servant”, “The Yard”).

Rembrandt. Anatomy of Dr. Tulp. The Hague, Mauritshuis

A new stage of genre painting begins in the 50s and is associated with the so-called Delft school, with the names of artists such as Karel Fabritius, Emmanuel de Witte and Jan Vermeer, known in art history as Vermeer of Delft (1632-1675). Vermeer was one of those artists who predetermined many coloristic quest XIX century, paved the way for the Impressionists in many ways, although Vermeer's paintings seem to be in no way original. These are the same images of a frozen burgher life: reading a letter, a gentleman and a lady talking, maids engaged in a simple household, views of Amsterdam or Delft. Vermeer's early painting "At the Matchmaker" (1656) is unusually (for the "small Dutch") large in size, monumental in shape, resonant in the color of large local spots: the red clothes of the cavalier, the yellow dress and the girl's white scarf.

Later, Vermeer would abandon large sizes and paint the same small canvases that were accepted in genre painting of that time. But these pictures, simple in action: “Girl reading a letter”, “Cavalier and lady at the spinet”, “Officer and laughing girl”, etc., are full of spiritual clarity, peace and quiet. The main advantages of Vermeer as an artist are in the transmission of light and air. It combines a wide brush with a small stroke, coordinating light and color. The dissolution of objects in a light-air environment, the ability to create this illusion, first of all, determined the recognition and fame of Vermeer precisely in the 19th century. Later, Vermeer's writing became more fused, smooth, built on gentle combinations of blue, yellow, blue, united by amazing pearl, even pearl gray ("Girl's Head").

Wermeer did what no one else did in the 17th century: he painted landscapes from nature (“Street”, “View of Delft”). They can be called the first examples of plein air painting. Mature, classical in its simplicity, the art of Vermeer was of great importance for future eras.

The pinnacle of Dutch realism, the result of the pictorial achievements of the Dutch culture of the 17th century, is the work of Rembrandt. But the significance of Rembrandt, like any other brilliant artist, goes beyond the bounds of only Dutch art and the Dutch school.

Harmensz van Rijn Rembrandt (1606-1669) was born in Leiden, the son of a rather prosperous mill owner, and after the Latin school he studied for a short time at the University of Leiden, but left him to study painting, first with a little-known local master, and then with the Amsterdam artist Pieter Lastman .

The period of study was short, and soon Rembrandt left for hometown to paint on your own in your own studio. Therefore, the years 1625-1632 are usually called the Leiden period of his work. This is the time of the formation of the artist, his greatest passion for Caravaggio, the master's manner during this period was still rather dry, and the interpretation of plots was often melodramatic. This is the period when he first turns to etching.

In 1632, Rembrandt left for Amsterdam, the center of the artistic culture of Holland, which naturally attracted the young artist. The 30s were the time of the highest glory, the path to which was opened for the painter by a large commissioned painting of 1632 - a group portrait, also known as "Anatomy of Dr. Tulp", or "Anatomy Lesson". On the Rembrandt canvas, people are united by action, all are presented in natural poses, their attention is drawn to the main character, Dr. Tulp, who demonstrates the structure of muscles in a “broken” corpse. Like a true Dutchman, Rembrandt is not afraid of realistic details, like a great artist, he knows how to avoid naturalism. In 1634, Rembrandt marries a girl from a wealthy family - Saskia van Uylenborch - and since then falls into patrician circles. The happiest period of his life begins. He becomes a famous and fashionable artist. His house attracts the best representatives of the aristocracy of the spirit and rich customers, he has a large workshop, where his numerous students work with success. A considerable legacy of Saskia and his own works give material freedom.

This whole period is covered with romance. The painter, as it were, specifically seeks in his work to get away from the dull burgher everyday life and paints himself and Saskia in luxurious outfits, in fantastic clothes and headdresses, creating spectacular compositions, expressing in complex turns, poses, movements different states in which the common thing prevails - joy being. This mood is expressed in one self-portrait of the Louvre collection of 1634 and in a portrait of Saskia from the museum in Kassel (of the same year), as well as in the Hermitage image of Saskia as Flora. But, perhaps, Rembrandt's attitude of these years is most clearly conveyed by the famous “Self-Portrait with Saskia on His Knees” (circa 1636). The whole canvas is permeated with frank joy of life, jubilation. These feelings are conveyed by the ingenuous expression of the radiant face of the artist himself, who seems to have achieved all earthly blessings; the whole entourage, from rich clothes to a solemnly raised crystal glass in hand; the rhythm of plastic masses, the richness of color nuances, light and shade modeling, which will become the main means of expression in Rembrandt's painting. enchanting, fairy world... Baroque language is closest to the expression of high spirits. And Rembrandt in this period is largely influenced by the Italian Baroque.

In complex foreshortenings, the characters of the 1635 painting "The Sacrifice of Abraham" appear before us. From the body of Isaac, prostrate in the foreground and expressing the complete helplessness of the victim, the viewer’s gaze turns in depth - to the figure of the elder Abraham and the messenger of God, the angel, breaking out of the clouds. The composition is extremely dynamic, built according to all the rules of baroque. But in the picture there is something that distinguishes in it precisely the Rembrandtian nature of creativity: penetrating tracing state of mind Abraham, who, at the sudden appearance of an angel, did not have time to feel either the joy of deliverance from a terrible sacrifice, or gratitude, but so far only feels fatigue and bewilderment. The richest possibilities of Rembrandt as a psychologist are quite obvious in this picture.

In the same 30s, Rembrandt for the first time began to seriously engage in graphics, especially etching. The legacy of Rembrandt the graphic artist, who left both engravings and unique drawings, is no less significant than the painting. Rembrandt's etchings are mostly biblical and gospel subjects, but in drawing, as a true Dutch artist, he often refers to the genre as well. True, Rembrandt's talent is such that any genre work begins to sound under his hand like a philosophical generalization.

At the turn of the early period of the artist's work and his creative maturity, one of his most famous paintings, known as The Night Watch (1642), is presented to us - a group portrait of Captain Banning Cock's rifle company.

But a group portrait is only a formal title of the work, arising from the desire of the customer. Rembrandt departed from the usual composition of a group portrait-image of a feast, during which each of the portraits is "represented". He expanded the scope of the genre, presenting a rather historical picture: on an alarm signal, Banning Cock's detachment sets out on a campaign. Some are calm, confident, others are excited in anticipation of what is to come, but all have an expression of common energy, patriotic enthusiasm, the triumph of civic spirit.

The image of people coming out from under some kind of arch into the bright sunlight is full of echoes of the heroic era of the Dutch revolution, the time of the triumphs of the Republican Holland. A group portrait under the brush of Rembrandt grew into a heroic image of the era and society.

But this mood itself was alien to the burgher Holland of the middle of the century, did not meet the tastes of the customers, and the painting techniques went against the generally accepted ones. Spectacular, undoubtedly somewhat theatrical, highly free composition, as already mentioned, did not aim to represent each of the customers. Many faces are simply poorly “read” in this sharp chiaroscuro, in these contrasts of thick shadows and bright sunlight, which the detachment enters (in the 19th century, the picture had already darkened so much that it was considered an image of a night scene, hence its incorrect name. Shadow, laying down from the figure of the captain on the light clothes of the lieutenant, proves that it is not night, but day).

It seemed incomprehensible and absurd to the viewer that strangers appeared in this scene, especially a little girl in a golden yellow dress, worming her way into a crowd of warlike men. Everything here caused bewilderment and irritation of the public, and it can be said that the conflict between the artist and society begins and deepens with this picture. With the death of Saskia in the same year 1642, Rembrandt's natural break with patrician circles alien to him occurs.

The 40-50s are the time of creative maturity. It was not only Rembrandt's external life that changed, but first of all he himself changed. This is the time of the formation of his creative system, from which much will become a thing of the past and in which other, invaluable qualities will be acquired. During this period, he often turns to old works in order to remake them in a new way. This was the case, for example, with Danae, which he wrote as early as 1636. Even then, the main thing was expressed in this image: the sensual principle, pagan, to some extent “Titian” was in it only part of the general in the expression of complex emotional experiences, a single spiritual impulse. The classical, beautiful, but also abstract in its beauty ideal was replaced by the expression of the truth of life, the bright individuality of the physical warehouse. This ugly body was conveyed extremely realistically. But Rembrandt was not satisfied with external truth. Turning to the picture in the 40s, the artist strengthened the emotional state. He rewrote the central part with the heroine and the maid. Giving Danae a new gesture of a raised hand, he told her great excitement, an expression of joy, hope, an appeal. The style of writing has also changed. In the untouched parts, the painting is in cold tones, the form is carefully worked out; the rewritten ones are dominated by warm, golden brown, bold, free writing. Light plays a huge role: the luminous flux, as it were, envelops the figure of Danae, she is all glowing with love and happiness, this light is perceived as an expression of human feelings.

In the 1940s and 1950s, Rembrandt's craftsmanship steadily grew. He chooses for interpretation the most lyrical, poetic aspects of human existence, that human, which is eternal, universal: maternal love, compassion. The Holy Scripture gives him the greatest material, and from it, scenes from the life of the holy family, scenes from the life of Tobias. There are no external effects in the works of this period. Rembrandt depicts a simple life, ordinary people, as in the canvas “Holy Family”: only angels descending into the twilight of a poor dwelling remind us that this is not an ordinary family. The gesture of the mother's hand, throwing back the canopy to look at the sleeping child, concentration in the figure of Joseph - everything is deeply thought out. The simplicity of life and the appearance of people does not ground the topic. Rembrandt knows how to see in everyday life not the petty and ordinary, but the deep and enduring. The peaceful silence of working life, the holiness of motherhood emanates from this canvas. A huge role in Rembrandt's paintings is played by chiaroscuro - the basis of his artistic structure. The coloring is dominated by tonal relationships, into which Rembrandt likes to introduce strong patches of pure color. In The Holy Family, the red blanket on the cradle serves as such a unifying spot.

A large place in the work of Rembrandt is occupied by the landscape, both picturesque and graphic (etching and drawing). In the image of the real corners of the country, he can do the same as in thematic picture, to rise above the ordinary ("Landscape with a windmill").

The last 16 years are the most tragic years of Rembrandt's life; he is ruined, has no orders, he does not have his own house, he has lost all his relatives, loved ones, and even his students betray him. But these years are full of amazing creative activity, as a result of which picturesque images are created, exceptional in terms of monumentality of characters and spirituality, deeply philosophical and highly ethical works. In these paintings by Rembrandt, everything is cleared of the transient, accidental. Details are kept to a minimum, gestures, postures, head tilts are carefully thought out and comprehended. The figures are enlarged, close to the front plane of the canvas. Even small-sized works by Rembrandt of these years create an impression of extraordinary grandeur and true monumentality. The main expressive means are not lines and masses, but light and color. The composition is built to a large extent on the balance of color sounds. The colors are dominated by shades of red and brown, as if burning from the inside.

Color acquires sonority and intensity. It would be more accurate to say about the late Rembrandt that his color is “radiant”, because in his canvases light and color are one, his colors seem to radiate light. This complex interaction of color and light is not an end in itself, it creates a certain emotional environment and psychological characteristics of the image.

The portraits of the late Rembrandt are very different from the portraits of the 30s and even 40s. These extremely simple (half-length or generational) images of people close to the artist in their inner structure are always a figurative expression of a multifaceted human personality, striking with the master's ability to convey unsteady, elusive spiritual movements.

Rembrandt knew how to create a portrait-biography; highlighting only the face and hands, he expressed the whole story of life ("Portrait of an old man in red", about 1654). But Rembrandt achieved the greatest subtlety of characteristics in self-portraits, of which about a hundred have come down to us and on which the infinite variety of psychological aspects, the variety of Rembrandt's characteristics are perfectly traced. After the festive portraits of the 1930s, another interpretation of the image appears before us; full of high dignity and extraordinary simplicity, a man in the prime of his life in a portrait from the Vienna Collection of 1652; these features will become predominant over time, as will the expression of fortitude and creative power (portrait of 1660).

The final in the history of the group portrait was Rembrandt’s depiction of the elders of the cloth maker’s shop - the so-called “Sindics” (1662), where Rembrandt created living and at the same time different human types with stingy means, but most importantly, he managed to convey a sense of spiritual union, mutual understanding and interconnections of people united one deed and tasks that even Hals failed to do.

In the years of maturity (mainly in the 50s), Rembrandt created his best etchings. As an etcher, he knows no equal in world art. His etching technique is extraordinarily complicated and enriched. To etching, he adds the “dry needle” technique, applies paint in different ways when printing, sometimes makes changes to the board after the first impressions are received, which is why many etchings are known in several states. But in all of them the images have a deep philosophical meaning; they tell about the secrets of life, about the tragedy human life. And one more feature of Rembrandt's etchings of this period: they express sympathy for the suffering, the destitute, the indestructible feeling of the artist himself for justice and goodness.

In Rembrandt's graphics, the democratism of his worldview was fully manifested (Blind Tobit, Descent from the Cross, Entombment, Adoration of the Shepherds, Three Crosses, 1653 and 1660).

He does a lot of drawing. Rembrandt left behind 2000 drawings. These are sketches from nature, sketches for paintings and preparations for etchings. Rembrandt's technically brilliant, impeccable drawings demonstrate his usual evolution: from elaboration in detail and compositional complexity to striking laconicism and classically clear majestic simplicity.

The epilogue of Rembrandt's work can be considered his famous painting "The Prodigal Son" (circa 1668-1669), in which the ethical height and pictorial skill of the artist were most fully manifested. The plot of the biblical parable about the dissolute son, who after many wanderings returned to his father's house, attracted Rembrandt before, as evidenced by one of his early etchings and several drawings. In this group - in the figure of a ragged young man who fell to his knees and an old man laid his hands on his shaved head - the utmost tension of feelings, emotional shock, the happiness of returning and finding, bottomless parental love, but also the bitterness of disappointments, losses, humiliation, shame and repentance. This Inhumanity makes the scene understandable different people of all time and gives her immortality. The coloristic unity here is especially striking. From the orange-red tones of the background - this is all a single pictorial stream, perceived as an expression of a single feeling.

Rembrandt had a huge influence on art. There was not a painter in Holland who did not experience the influence of a great artist. He had many students. They assimilated the system of Rembrandt's chiaroscuro, but, naturally, they could not assimilate Rembrandt's comprehension of the human personality. Therefore, some of them did not go further than external imitation of the teacher, and the majority changed him, moving to the position of academicism and imitation of the then fashionable Flemings, and then the French.

In the 17th century, the Dutch school of painting became one of the leading in Europe. It was here, for the first time in the history of world art, that the objects of the surrounding reality turned out to be a source of creative inspiration, and artistic intent. In the Dutch art of this time, the formation of a whole system of genres, which began in the Renaissance, was completed. In portraits, everyday paintings, landscapes and still lifes, the artists with rare skill and warmth conveyed their impressions of the surrounding nature and unpretentious life. They reflected the collective image of Holland - a young republic that defended its independence in the war with Spain.

"Morning of a Young Lady" 1660 Frans Miris the Elder. Wood, oil. State Hermitage

Paintings of artists on everyday topics (or genre paintings) depicting a person in a familiar, everyday environment, reflected the established forms of life, behavior and communication of people belonging to various classes of Dutch society. Designed to decorate the interiors of the houses of merchants, artisans or wealthy peasants, the paintings of Dutch artists were small in size. Artists made money by selling paintings that were painted with the possibility of detailed viewing at close range. This, in turn, gave rise to a particularly careful, delicate manner of writing.

Terrace Society. 1620 Esais Van De Velde. Wood, oil. State Hermitage

Throughout the 17th century, Dutch genre painting underwent a significant evolution. In the period of its formation, at the beginning of the century, plots on the themes of recreation, entertainment of young wealthy Dutchmen, or scenes from the life of officers were common. Such paintings were called "banquets", "societies", "concerts". Their painting was distinguished by a variegated color, an elevated joyful tone. The painting "Society on the Terrace" by Esaias van de Velde belongs to the works of this kind.

By the beginning of the 1930s, the formation of the Dutch genre painting was completed. Crowded "societies" gave way to small-figured compositions. The image of the environment surrounding a person began to play an important role. There has been a division of genre painting along social lines: plots on themes from the life of the bourgeoisie, and scenes from the life of peasants and the urban poor. Both those and other paintings were intended to decorate the interior.

"Fight". 1637 Adrian van Ostade. Wood, oil. State Hermitage

One of the most famous artists who worked in the "peasant genre" was Adrian van Ostade. In the early period of creativity, the image of the peasants in his paintings was distinguished by an accentuated comicality, sometimes reaching a caricature. So, in the painting “The Fight”, illuminated by a sharp light, the fighting people seem not to be living people, but puppets, whose faces are like masks distorted by grimaces of malice. The opposition of cold and warm colors, sharp contrasts of light and shadow further enhance the impression of the scene's grotesqueness.

Village Musicians. 1635 Adrian Van De Ostade 1635 Oil on wood. State Hermitage

In the 1650s, there was a change in Adrian Ostade's painting. The artist turned to more calm subjects, depicting a person during habitual activities, most often in moments of rest. Such, for example, is the interior painting “Village Musicians”. Ostade skillfully conveys the concentration of the “musicians” who are carried away by their occupation, depicting children watching them through the window with barely noticeable humor. The variety and softness of the play of light and shade, the greenish-brown color scheme unite people and their environment into a single whole.

"Winter view". 1640 Isaac Van Ostade. Wood, oil. State Hermitage

Adrian's brother, Isaac van Ostade, who died early, also worked in the "peasant genre". He depicted the life of rural Holland, in the nature of which a person felt at home. The painting "Winter View" presents a typical Dutch landscape with a gray sky hanging heavily over the earth, a frozen river, on the banks of which the village is located.

"The patient and the doctor." 1660 Jan Steen. Wood, oil. State Hermitage

The genre theme of the art of the Ostade brothers was continued by Jan Steen, a talented master who, with a sense of humor, noticed the characteristic details of everyday life and relationships actors in their paintings. In the painting “Revelers”, the artist himself looks merrily and slyly at the viewer, sitting next to his wife, who fell asleep after a fun feast. In the film “The Patient and the Doctor”, through the facial expressions and gestures of the characters, Jan Steen skillfully reveals the plot of an imaginary illness.

"A room in a Dutch house". Peter Janssens. Canvas, oil. State Hermitage

In the fifties and sixties of the 17th century, the subject of genre paintings gradually narrowed. The figurative structure of the paintings is changing. They become calmer, more intimate, more lyrical contemplation, quiet thought appear in them. This stage is represented by the works of such artists as: Pieter de Hooch, Gerard Terborch, Gabriel Metsu, Pieter Janssens. Their works embodied a poetic and somewhat idealized image of the everyday life of the Dutch bourgeoisie, who once fought for their rights and independence, and now have achieved sustainable prosperity. So, in the interior painting “A Room in a Dutch House” by Peter Janssens, a cozy room flooded with sunlight is depicted with sunbeams playing on the floor and on the walls, in the painting “The Old Lady by the Fireplace” by Jacob Wrehl, a room with a fireplace immersed in soft twilight is depicted. The choice of composition in the works of both artists emphasizes the unity of man and his environment.

"Glass of lemonade." 1664 Gerard Terborch. Host (translation from wood), oil. State Hermitage

During these years, the Dutch genre painters for the first time tried to reflect in their works the depth of a person's inner life. In everyday life situations, they found an opportunity to reflect the diverse world of the subtlest experiences. But, you can see this only with a careful and careful examination of the picture. So, in Gerard Terborch's painting "A Glass of Lemonade", the subtle language of gestures, touches of hands, and eye contact reveals a whole gamut of feelings and relationships between the characters.

"Breakfast". 1660 Gabriel Metsu. Wood, oil. State Hermitage

The object world begins to play a large role in the genre paintings of this period. It not only characterizes the material and emotional environment of a person's life, but also expresses the diversity of the relationship of a person with the outside world. The set of objects, their arrangement, a complex system of symbols, as well as the gestures of the characters - everything plays a role in creating the figurative structure of the picture.

"Revelers". 1660 Jan Steen. Wood, oil. State Hermitage

Dutch genre painting was not distinguished by a wide variety of subjects. Artists limited themselves to depicting only a certain circle of characters and their occupations. But, with their help, Dutch genre painting was able to convey a reliable image of mores, customs, and ideas about the life of a person in the 17th century.

In preparing the publication, materials from open sources were used.