Art ancient egypt divided into three periods:
Art of the Old Kingdom, Art of the Middle Kingdom and Art of the New Kingdom. In each of these periods, its own style developed, its own canons were developed and innovations were introduced. Briefly, these periods can be characterized as follows.
General characteristics of the art of ancient Egypt
Art of the Old Kingdom (XXXII century-XXIV century BC)
The main canons of Egyptian art, which were then preserved over the centuries, took shape in the first half of the 3rd millennium BC. e. It was a monumental style, due to the fact that the art of Egypt was integral part funeral ritual, is closely connected with religion, which idolizes the forces of nature and earthly power.
The Great Pyramids and the Great Sphinx belong to this time.
Egyptian pyramids
The Egyptian pyramids are the greatest architectural monuments of Ancient Egypt. These are huge pyramidal stone structures used as tombs for the pharaohs of Ancient Egypt. In total, more than 100 pyramids have been discovered in Egypt.
Pyramid of Neferefre in Abusir
Great sphinx
The Great Sphinx at Giza is the oldest monumental sculpture on Earth. It is carved from a monolithic limestone rock in the form of a sphinx - a lion lying on the sand, whose face is given a portrait resemblance to Pharaoh Khafre (c. 2575-2465 BC). The length of the statue is 72 m, the height is 20 m; between the front paws in ancient times there was a small sanctuary (an altar dedicated to a deity).
Great Sphinx and Pyramid of Cheops
Since ancient times in Egypt, it was customary to depict the pharaoh in the form of a lion, exterminating his enemies. The circumstances and exact time of the construction of the sphinx have not yet been precisely determined. For local residents, the Sphinx was a kind of talisman, the ruler of the Nile. They believed that the flood level of the great river and the fertility of their fields depended on it.
Great Pyramid of Cheops
Cheops is the second pharaoh of the IV dynasty of the Old Kingdom of Egypt (2589-2566 BC or 2551-2528 BC, presumably), the builder of the Great Pyramid at Giza. Cheops gained a reputation as a classic oriental despot and cruel ruler. He reigned for about 27 years. The pyramid is his greatest achievement, as well as the first among the seven wonders of the world in the ancient world. It is the only one of the wonders of the world that has survived to this day. The original height of 146.6 m (today only 137.5 m) was considered the tallest building in the world for 3500 years.
Art of the Middle Kingdom (XXI century-XVIII century BC)
The art of the Middle Kingdom carefully observed the traditions and canons of the Ancient, but also introduced its own characteristics. The beginning of the Middle Kingdom: after a long period of unrest and the collapse of Egypt into separate nomes, it united under the rule of the Theban rulers. But now the centralization was not absolute, as before. Local rulers (nomarchs) became richer and more independent and appropriated royal privileges. The tombs of the nobles began to be located not at the foot of the royal pyramids, but separately. the pyramids became more modest and smaller. During this period, the development of jewelry began.
With a decrease in the pathos of monumentality, genre diversity begins to develop. The portrait develops, individual features gradually increase in it.
Art of the New Kingdom (XVII century - XI century BC)
In the art of the New Kingdom, the manifestation of human feelings and reflections became noticeable.
The tombs have ceased to be ground-based and are hiding in the gorges. Temple architecture began to dominate. The priests became an independent political force, competing even with the power of the king. Although the pharaohs, their exploits and conquests were glorified in the temples.
For several centuries, the famous temples of Amon-Ra were built and completed in Karnak and Luxor, near Thebes.
The main temple of Amun-Ra in Karnak
The innovative stage is associated with the reign of the pharaoh-reformer Akhenaten in the 14th century. BC e. Akhenaten opposed the Theban priesthood, abolished the entire ancient pantheon of gods, made the priests his irreconcilable enemies.
Akhenaten
Akhenaten's art turned to simple feelings people and their mental states. Lyrical scenes of Akhenaten's family life appear in art: he hugs his wife, caresses the child.
But the reaction to his reforms began under one of his closest successors, Tutankhamen. All the old cults were soon restored. But many of the innovative ideas and techniques of Akhenaten were preserved in ancient Egyptian art.
Ramses II
The last famous conqueror Ramesses II began to cultivate a solemn-monumental style, and after Ramses there followed a period of long wars, the conquest of Egypt by the Ethiopians, the Assyrians. Egypt lost military and political power, and then cultural primacy. In the 7th century BC e. the Egyptian state for a time again united around the Sais rulers, ancient Egyptian art was also revived in its traditional forms. But there was no longer the former vitality in him, fatigue is felt, the drying up of creative energy. The world-historical role of Egypt was exhausted.
Architecture of Ancient Egypt
Architecture of the Early Kingdom
Monuments of monumental architecture of this period have practically not been preserved, because. the main building material was easily destroyed raw brick. Clay, reed and wood were also used. The stone was used only as a finishing material. The type of palace facades belongs to this era. Cult and memorial buildings are better preserved: sanctuaries, chapels and mastabas. During this period, some design techniques were developed: concave cornices, ornamental friezes (picturesque or sculptural), designing a doorway with a deep ledge.
The architecture of the Old Kingdom - "the time of the pyramids"
During this period, a powerful centralized state was created under the rule of the pharaoh, who is considered the son of the god Ra, this dictated the main type of architectural structure - the tomb. The largest royal tombs-pyramids are being created, on the constructions of which not only slaves, but also peasants worked for decades. Pyramids testify that exact sciences and crafts were well developed in ancient Egypt of that time.
Step Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara
Step pyramids were built by other pharaohs of the III dynasty. Towards the end of the Old Kingdom period, new type buildings - a solar temple, which was usually built on a hill and surrounded by a wall.
Mortuary Temple of Seti I at Abydos
Architecture of the Middle Kingdom
After Mentuhotep I in 2050 BC. e again united Egypt and restored the unified power of the pharaohs under the auspices of Thebes, the psychology of individualism began to dominate: everyone began to take care of their own immortality. Now not only the pharaoh, but also mere mortals began to claim privileges in the other world. The idea of equality after death arose, and this was immediately reflected in the technical side of the cult of the dead. Mastaba-type tombs became an unnecessary luxury. To provide eternal life one stele was already enough - a stone slab on which magical texts were written.
But the pharaohs continued to build tombs in the form of pyramids, although their size decreased, the material for construction was not two-ton blocks, but raw brick, the laying method changed. The basis is 8 capital stone walls. Other 8 walls departed from these walls at an angle of 45º, and the gaps between them were filled with fragments of stone, sand, brick. From above, the pyramids were lined with limestone slabs. The upper mortuary temple adjoined the eastern side of the pyramid, from which there was a covered passage to the temple in the valley. Currently, these pyramids are piles of ruins.
Mortuary Temple of Pharaoh Mentuhotep II
A new type of burial structures appeared: tombs. The main part of the tomb was a mortuary temple, decorated with a portico; in the center, a ramp led to a second terrace, where a second portico surrounded on three sides a hall of columns, in the center of which stood a pyramid made of stone blocks. Its foundation was a natural rock. On the west side was an open courtyard. The tomb of the pharaoh was located under the pillared hall.
New Kingdom architecture
In architecture and art of the New Kingdom leading role Thebes starts to play. Luxurious palaces and houses, magnificent temples are built in them. The glory of the city has been preserved for many centuries.
The construction of temples was carried out in three main directions: ground, rocky and semi-rocky temple complexes.
Facade of the rock temple of Ramses II
Architecture of the Late Kingdom
From the era of the XXVI dynasty, Thebes lose their political and artistic significance, and the city of Sais becomes the new capital of Egypt. Architectural monuments of the Saisian period are almost not preserved. In the few that have survived, there are ground and rock structures, some elements of temple architecture: hypostyles, pylons, chains of halls.
Hypostyle - a large hall of a temple or palace supported by columns with numerous, regularly placed columns.
Great Hypostyle Hall at Karnak (Egypt)
In the architecture of the era of Persian rule, there is a gradual rejection of the type of monumental ensembles; Temples are becoming much smaller. The type of the classical colonnade of the New Kingdom period is preserved, but the splendor and detailed development of the decor are noticeably increased.
After the conquest of Egypt by the Greeks, a synthesis of local artistic culture with the traditions of antiquity.
The Temple at Philae is evidence of the evolution of the traditions of ancient Egyptian art during the Hellenistic period
Sculpture of Ancient Egypt
The sculpture of Ancient Egypt is original and strictly canonically regulated. It was created and developed to represent the ancient Egyptian gods, pharaohs, kings and queens in physical form. Statues of gods and pharaohs were put on public display, usually in open spaces and outside temples. The most sacred image of God was in the temple. Many carved figurines have been preserved. Such figurines were made of wood, alabaster, a more expensive material. Wooden images of slaves, animals and property were placed in tombs to accompany the dead in the afterlife.
Statues of Hatshepsut and Thutmose III (Karnak)
There were also many images of Ka in the graves of ordinary Egyptians, mostly made of wood, some of which have survived. Ka is the spirit of man, a being of a higher order, a divine life force. After the death of a person, Ka continued to exist inside the tomb and accepted offerings.
Ka was depicted as a man with raised arms on his head, bent at the elbows.
Ka had and inanimate objects. The gods had several Ka.
The canon for the creation of ancient Egyptian sculpture: the color of the body of a man should have been darker than the color of the body of a woman, the hands of a seated person should have been exclusively on his knees. The rules for depicting the Egyptian gods: the god Horus should have been depicted with the head of a falcon, the god of the dead Anubis - with the head of a jackal, etc. The sculptural canon of Ancient Egypt existed for 3 thousand years.
The heyday of small sculpture began in the art of the Middle Kingdom. Although it was still associated with the funeral cult, but the figurines were already covered with soil and painted, whole multi-figured compositions were created in a round sculpture.
In the New Kingdom, monumental sculpture began to actively develop, the purpose of which began to go beyond the funeral cult. In the Theban sculpture of the New Kingdom, features of individuality appear. For example, portrait images of Hatshepsut. Hatshepsut is a female pharaoh of the New Kingdom of Ancient Egypt from the 18th dynasty. Hatshepsut completed the rebuilding of Egypt after the Hyksos invasion and erected many monuments throughout Egypt. She, along with Thutmose III, Akhenaten, Tutankhamun, Ramses II and Cleopatra VII, is one of the most famous Egyptian rulers.
Hatshepsut
In the art of the New Kingdom, a sculptural group portrait also appears, especially images of a married couple.
An innovation was the depiction of figures entirely in profile, which was previously not allowed by the Egyptian canon. The fact that ethnic features were preserved in the portrait was also new. The lyrical beginning is manifested in the Amarna reliefs, filled with natural plasticity and not containing canonical frontal images.
The culmination of the development of fine arts is rightly considered the work of the sculptors of Tutmes' workshop. Among them is the famous head of Queen Nefertiti in a blue tiara.
Bust of Nefertiti. New Museum (Berlin)
Nefertiti is the “main wife” of the ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the XVIII dynasty Akhenaten (c. 1351-1334 BC). It is believed that Egypt has never produced such a beauty before. She was called "Perfect"; her face adorned temples all over the country.
In the sculpture of the Late Kingdom, the skills of the ancient high craftsmanship of sculpture are somewhat fading. Again, static, conditional outlines of faces, canonical poses, and even a semblance of an “archaic smile”, characteristic of the art of the Early and Ancient Kingdoms, become relevant again. The sculptures of the Ptolemaic period are also mostly made in the traditions of the Egyptian canon. But the Hellenistic culture influenced the nature of the interpretation of the face, there is greater plasticity, softness and lyricism.
Statue of Osiris. Louvre (Paris)
Painting of Ancient Egypt
All sculptural images in ancient Egypt they were brightly painted. Paint composition: egg tempera, viscous substances and resins. A real fresco was not used, only "fresco a secco" (wall painting, performed on hard, dried plaster, re-moistened. Paints ground on vegetable glue, egg or mixed with lime are used). From above, the painting was covered with a layer of varnish or resin in order to preserve the image for a long time. Most often, small statues, especially wooden ones, were painted this way.
Many Egyptian paintings survived thanks to the dry climate of ancient Egypt. Pictures were created to improve the life of the deceased in the afterlife. Scenes of a journey to the afterlife and a meeting in the afterlife with a deity (the court of Osiris) were depicted.
Part of the Book of the Dead from Akhmim, depicting the court of Osiris (IV-I centuries BC)
The earthly life of the deceased was often depicted to help him do the same in the realm of the dead.
In the New Kingdom, they began to bury the Book of the Dead with the deceased, which was considered important for the afterlife.
book of the dead
In the era of the Old Kingdom, there was a custom of reading spells aloud for the deceased king. Later, similar texts began to be recorded in the tombs of Egyptian nobles. By the time of the Middle Kingdom, collections of funeral spells were already written on the surface of sarcophagi and became available to anyone who could purchase such a sarcophagus. In the New Kingdom and later, they were recorded on papyrus scrolls or on leather. These scrolls are called the "Book of the Dead": a heap of prayers, chants, hymns and spells associated with the funeral cult. Gradually elements of morality penetrate into the Book of the Dead.
Judgment of Osiris
This is the 125th chapter, which describes the posthumous judgment of Osiris (the king and judge of the underworld) over the deceased. Illustration for the chapter: Osiris with a crown and a rod sits on a throne. At the top are 42 gods. In the center of the hall there are scales on which the gods weigh the heart of the deceased (the symbol of the soul among the ancient Egyptians). On one cup of the scales there is a heart, that is, the conscience of the deceased, light or burdened with sins, and on the other the Truth in the form of a feather of the goddess Maat or a figure of Maat. If a person led a righteous life on earth, then his heart and feather weighed the same, if he sinned, then his heart weighed more. The acquitted deceased was sent to the afterlife, the sinner was eaten by the monster Amat (lion with the head of a crocodile).
At the trial, the deceased turns to Osiris, and then to each of the 42 gods, justifying himself in a mortal sin, which one or another god was in charge of. The same chapter contains the text of the exculpatory speech.
The gods weigh the heart of the deceased (Book of the Dead)
The main colors of painting in Ancient Egypt were red, blue, black, brown, yellow, white and green.
The tombs of the pharaohs, temple premises, royal palaces were filled with various sculptures, which constituted an organic part of the buildings.
The main images developed by the sculptors were the images of the reigning pharaohs. Although the needs of the cult required the creation of images of numerous gods, the image of a deity, made according to rigid schemes, often with the heads of animals and birds, did not become central in Egyptian sculpture: in most cases it was a mass production and inexpressive. Much more important was the artistic development of the type of the earthly ruler, his nobles, and over time - ordinary people. From the beginning of the III millennium BC. e. there was a certain canon in the interpretation of the pharaoh: he was depicted sitting on a throne in a pose of dispassionate calm and majesty, the master emphasized his enormous physical strength and size (powerful arms and legs, torso). During the Middle Kingdom, the masters overcome the idea of cold grandeur and the faces of the pharaohs acquire individual features. For example, the statue of Senusret III with deep-set, slightly squinting eyes, a large nose, thick lips and protruding cheekbones quite realistically conveys a distrustful character, with a sad and even tragic expression on his face.Masters felt more free when they depicted nobles and especially commoners. Here the shackling influence of the canon is overcome, the image is developed more boldly and realistically, its psychological characteristics are more fully conveyed. The art of individual portraiture, deep realism, a sense of movement reached its peak in the era of the New Kingdom, especially during the short period of Akhenaten's reign (Amarna period). The sculptural images of the pharaoh himself, his wife Nefertiti, and members of his family are distinguished by their skillful transfer of the inner world, deep psychologism, and high artistic skill.
In addition to round sculpture, the Egyptians willingly turned to relief. Many walls of tombs and temples, various structures are covered with magnificent relief compositions, most often depicting nobles in the circle of their families, in front of the altar of a deity, among their fields, etc.
A certain canon was also developed in relief paintings: the main “hero” was depicted larger than the others, his figure was conveyed in a double plan: head and legs in profile, shoulders and chest in front. All figures were usually painted.
Along with the reliefs, the walls of the tombs were covered with contour or pictorial paintings, the content of which was more diverse than the reliefs. Quite often, scenes of everyday life were reproduced in these paintings: artisans at work in the workshop, fishermen catching fish, peasants plowing, street vendors with their goods, litigation, etc. The Egyptians achieved great skill in depicting wildlife - landscapes, animals, birds , where the restraining influence of ancient traditions was felt much less. A vivid example is the paintings of the tombs of the nomarchs, discovered in Beni Hasan and dating back to the Middle Kingdom.
All ancient Egyptian art was subject to cult canons. Relief and sculpture were no exception. Masters left outstanding sculptural monuments to their descendants: statues of gods and people, figures of animals.
The man was sculpted in a static but majestic pose, standing or sitting. At the same time, the left leg was pushed forward, and the arms either folded on the chest or pressed against the body.
Some sculptors were required to create figures of working people. At the same time, there was a strict canon for the depiction of a particular occupation - the choice of a moment characteristic of this particular type of work.
Among the ancient Egyptians, statues could not exist separately from places of worship. They were first used to decorate the retinue of the deceased pharaoh and were placed in the tomb located in the pyramid. They were relatively small figures. When the kings began to be buried near the temples, the roads to these places were made with many huge statues. They were so large that no one paid attention to the details of the image. The statues were placed at the pylons, in the courtyards and already had artistic significance.
During the Old Kingdom, a round shape was established in Egyptian sculpture, and the main types of composition appeared. For example, the statue of Menkaure depicts standing man, who put forward his left leg and pressed his hands to the body. Or the statue of Rahotep and his wife Nofret represents a seated figure with their hands on their knees.
The Egyptians thought of the statue as the ʼʼbodyʼʼ of spirits and people. According to Egyptian texts, the god descended from the temple dedicated to him and reunited with his sculptural image. And the Egyptians revered not the statue itself, but the embodiment of an invisible god in it.
Some statues were placed in temples in memory of ʼʼparticipationʼʼ in a certain ritual. Others were given to temples in order to provide the person depicted with the constant patronage of the deity. Associated with prayers and appeals to the dead for the gift of offspring is the custom of bringing female figurines to the tombs of their ancestors, often with a child in their arms or next to them (ill. 49). Small figures of deities, usually reproducing the appearance of the main cult statue of the temple, were given by believers with prayers for well-being and health. The image of women and ancestors was an amulet that promoted the birth of children, because it was believed that the spirits of ancestors could inhabit women of the clan and be reborn again.
The statues were made for ka deceased. Because ka it was necessary to ʼʼrecognizeʼʼ exactly your body and enter into it, and the statue itself ʼʼreplaceʼʼ the body, each face of the statue was endowed with a certain unique individuality (with the commonness of the indisputable rules of compositions). So already in the era of the Old Kingdom, one of the achievements of ancient Egyptian art appeared - a sculptural portrait. This was facilitated by the practice of covering the faces of the dead with a layer of plaster - the creation of death masks.
Already in the era of the Old Kingdom, a narrow, closed room was built in mastabas next to the chapel ( serdab), in which the statue of the deceased was placed. There was a small window at the level of the eyes of the statue, so that the inhabitant of the statue ka the deceased could take part in funeral rites. It is believed that these statues served to preserve the earthly form of the deceased, as well as in case of loss or death of the mummy.
The spirit of the deceased endowed the statues with vitality, after which they ʼʼcame to lifeʼʼ for eternal life. For this reason, we never see images of people, for example, in death or post-mortem form, on the contrary, there is an exceptional vitality. The statues were made in life size, and the deceased was portrayed exclusively young.
In statues and reliefs, a person has always been depicted as sighted, since it was with the eye that the symbolism of the ʼʼsightʼʼ of the deceased and the acquisition of vitality by him was associated. Moreover, the sculptor made the eyes of the figures especially large. Οʜᴎ were always inlaid with colored stone, blue beads, faience, rock crystal (ill. 50). For the eye for the Egyptians is the receptacle of the spirit and has a mighty power of influencing the living and the spirits
Since the life-giving force of the lotus, which symbolized magical revival, was “breathed in” through the nostrils, the nose of a person was usually depicted with an underlined slit of the nostrils.
Since the lips of the mummy were endowed with the ability to pronounce the words of the afterlife confession, the lips themselves were never abstracted into a schematized sign.
In creating the type of seated statues (with hands on their knees), statues of pharaohs, made for the holiday, played an important role. heb-sed. Its goal was to "revive" an aged or sick ruler, because from the earliest times there was a belief that the fertility of the earth was due to the physical condition of the king. During the ritual, a statue of the ritually ʼʼkilledʼʼ pharaoh was placed, while the ruler himself, ʼʼrejuvenatedʼʼ again, performed a ritual beᴦ in front of the tent. Then the statue was buried and the coronation ceremony was repeated. After that, it was believed that the ruler full of strength again sits on the throne.
Statues of the same person placed in the tombs could be of different types, because they displayed various aspects of the funeral cult˸ one type conveyed the individual features of a person, without a wig, in fashionable clothes, the other had a more generalized interpretation of the face, was in an official belt and a magnificent wig.
The desire to ensure the ʼʼʼʼʼ performance of the funeral cult led to the fact that statues of priests began to appear in the tombs. The presence of figurines of children is also natural, because their indispensable duty was to take care of the funeral cult of their parents.
First ushebti(they were discussed in question No. 2) date back to the 21st century. BC. If it was not possible to achieve a portrait resemblance to the deceased from the ushebti, the name and title of the owner, whom she replaced, were written on each figurine. Tools and bags were put into the hands of ushebti, they were also painted on their backs. Statuettes of scribes, overseers, and boatmen appear (ill. 51-a). Baskets, hoes, hammers, jugs, etc. were made of faience or bronze for ushebti. The number of ushebti in one tomb could reach several hundred. There were those who bought 360 pieces - one little man for each day of the year. The poor bought one or two ushebtis, but with them they put in the coffin a list of three hundred and sixty such ʼʼhelpersʼʼ.
During individual ceremonies, sculptures of bound captives were used. Οʜᴎ probably replaced living captives during the corresponding rituals (say, the killing of defeated enemies).
The Egyptians believed that the constant presence of sculptural images of participants in a religious ritual in the temple, as it were, ensures the eternal performance of this ritual. Let's say the saved part sculptural group, where the gods Horus and Thoth put a crown on the head of Ramses III - this is how the coronation ceremony was reproduced, in which the roles of the gods were performed by priests in appropriate masks. Installing it in the temple was supposed to contribute to the long reign of the king.
found in tombs wooden the statues are associated with the funeral ritual (the repeated raising and lowering of the statue of the deceased as a symbol of the victory of Osiris over Set).
Statues of the pharaohs were placed in shrines and temples in order to put the pharaoh under the protection of the deity and at the same time glorify the ruler.
The giant statues-colossi of the pharaohs embodied the most sacred aspect of the essence of the kings - their ka.
In the era of the Old Kingdom, the canonical figures of the pharaoh appear standing with the left leg extended forward, in a short belt and crown, sitting with a royal scarf on his head (ill. 53, 53-a), kneeling, with two vessels in his hands (ill. 54) , in the form of a sphinx, with the gods, with the queen (ill. 55).
In the eyes of the ancient Eastern man, the physical and mental health of the king was understood as a condition for the successful fulfillment of his function as an intermediary between the world of people and the world of the gods. Since the pharaoh for the Egyptians acted as a guarantee and embodiment of the "collective" well-being and prosperity of the country, he not only could not have flaws (which can also cause disasters), but also surpass mere mortals in physical strength. With the exception of the brief Amarna period, the pharaohs were always portrayed as endowed with great physical strength.
The main requirement for the sculptor is to create the image of the pharaoh as the son of a god. It determined the choice artistic means. With a constant portraiture, a clear idealization of the appearance appeared, invariably there was a developed musculature, a gaze directed into the distance. The divinity of the pharaoh was supplemented with details˸ for example, Khafre is guarded by a falcon, the sacred bird of the god Horus
The Amarna period is marked by a completely new approach to conveying the image of a person in sculpture and relief. The desire of the pharaoh to be different from the images of his predecessors - gods or kings - resulted in the fact that in sculpture he appeared, as is believed, without any embellishment on a skinny, wrinkled neck - an elongated face, with drooping half-open lips, a long nose, half-closed eyes, puffy belly, thin ankles with full hips
Statues of individuals.
The Egyptians have always imitated official sculpture - images of pharaohs and gods, strong, strict, calm and majestic. Sculptures never express anger, surprise, or smiles. The spread of statues of private individuals was facilitated by the fact that the nobles began to arrange their own tombs.
The statues were of different sizes - from a few meters to very small figures of a few centimeters.
Sculptors, sculpting private individuals, were also obliged to adhere to the canon, first of all, frontality and symmetry in the construction of the figure (ill. 60, 61). All the statues have the same straight head, almost the same attributes in their hands.
In the era of the Old Kingdom, sculptural statues of married couples with children appeared (ill. 62, 63), scribes sitting with their legs crossed, with an unfolded papyrus scroll on their knees - at first only royal sons were depicted in this way
Temple of Horus at Edfu
Material and processing.
Already in the Old Kingdom there were sculptures made of red and black granite, diorite and quartzite (ill. 68), alabaster, slate, limestone, sandstone. The Egyptians loved hard rocks.
Images of gods, pharaohs, nobles were made mainly of stone (granite, limestone, quartzite). It is worth saying that for small figurines of people and animals, bone and faience were most often used. Servant figurines were made of wood. Ushabti were made of wood, stone, glazed faience, bronze, clay, wax. Only two ancient Egyptian copper sculptures are known.
Inlaid eyes with a contour relief eyelid rim are typical for statues made of limestone, metal or wood.
The limestone and wood sculptures were originally painted.
Sculptors of late Egypt began to prefer granite and basalt to limestone and sandstone. But the favorite material was bronze. Images of gods and figurines of animals dedicated to them were made from it. Some are made up of separately made parts, cheap ones were cast in clay or plaster molds. Most of these figurines were made using the technique of "lost wax" common in Egypt. The sculptor made a blank of the future image from clay, covered it with a layer of wax, worked out the conceived shape, covered it with clay and put it in the oven. Wax flowed out through a specially left hole, and liquid metal was poured into the resulting void. When the bronze cooled, the clay mold was broken and the product was taken out, the ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ was carefully processed and then its surface was polished. For each product, its own form was created and the work turned out to be the only one.
Bronze items were usually decorated with engraving and inlays. For the latter, thin gold and silver wires were used. Golden stripes circled the eyes of an ibis, necklaces of gold threads were worn around the necks of bronze cats.
The famous ancient Egyptian colossus statues are of interest in terms of the complexity of processing solid materials.
On the west bank of the Nile, opposite Luxor, stand two statues dating from the New Kingdom, called the ʼʼcolossi of Memnonʼʼ. According to one version of Egyptologists, the Greek name Memnom comes from one of the names of Amenhotep III. According to another version, after the earthquake on 27 ᴦ. BC. one of the statues was significantly damaged, and, probably, due to differences in night and day temperatures, the cracked stone began to make continuous sounds. This began to attract pilgrims, who believed that in this way the Ethiopian king Memnon, the character of Homer's ʼʼIliadʼʼ, welcomes the goddess of the dawn, Eos, his mother.
At the same time, there are intelligible explanations of how colossi made of quartzite 20-21 meters high, each weighing 750 tons, were placed on a pedestal also made of quartzite weighing 500 tons manually, can not found. Moreover, it was still necessary to deliver stone monoliths (or parts of them?) Over 960 kilometers up along the Nile.
Sculpture from the early dynastic period comes mainly from three large centers where the temples were located - She, Abydos and Koptos. The statues served as an object of worship, rituals and had a dedicatory purpose. A large group of monuments was associated with the “heb-sed” rite - the ritual of renewing the physical power of the pharaoh. This type includes types of sitting and walking figures of the king, executed in round sculpture and relief, as well as the image of his ritual run. The list of heb-sed monuments includes the statue of pharaoh Khasekhem, represented as sitting on a throne in ritual attire. This sculpture indicates the improvement of techniques: the figure has the correct proportions and is modeled in volume. Here the main features of the style have already been revealed - the monumentality of the form, the frontality of the composition. The pose of the statue, which fits into the rectangular block of the throne, is motionless; straight lines predominate in the outlines of the figure. Khasekhem's face is portrait, although his features are largely idealized. Attention is drawn to the setting of the eyes in the orbit with a convex eyeball. A similar technique of execution extended to the entire group of monuments of that time, being a characteristic stylistic feature of portraits of the Early Kingdom. By the same period, the canonicity of the full-length pre-dynastic period is established and gives way in the plastic of the Early Kingdom to the correct transfer of the proportions of the human body.
Sculpture of the Old Kingdom
Significant changes in sculpture take place precisely in the Middle Kingdom, which is largely due to the presence and creative rivalry of many local schools that gained independence during the period of collapse. Since the XII dynasty, ritual statues have been more widely used (and, accordingly, made in large quantities): they are now installed not only in tombs, but also in temples. Among them, images associated with the rite of heb-sed (the ritual revival of the pharaoh's life force) still dominate. The first stage of the rite was symbolically associated with the murder of the elderly ruler and was performed over his statue, which in composition resembled the canonical images and sculptures of sarcophagi. This type includes the heb-sed statue of Mentuhotep-Nebhepetr, depicting the pharaoh in a pointedly frozen pose with arms crossed on his chest. The style is distinguished by a large share of conventionality and generalization, which is generally typical for sculptural monuments of the beginning of the era. In the future, sculpture comes to a more subtle modeling of faces and greater plastic dissection: this is most evident in female portraits and images of private individuals.
Over time, the iconography of the kings also changes. By the 12th Dynasty, the idea of the pharaoh's divine power gave way in depictions to an insistent attempt to convey human individuality. Sculpture with official themes flourished during the reign of Senusret III, who was depicted in all ages from childhood to adulthood. The best of these images are considered to be the obsidian head of Senusret III and the sculptural portraits of his son Amenemhat III. The original find of the masters of local schools can be considered a type of cubic statue - an image of a figure enclosed in a monolithic stone block.
The art of the Middle Kingdom is the era of the heyday of small-scale plastic arts, most of which are still associated with the funeral cult and its rites (sailing on a boat, bringing sacrificial gifts, etc.). The figurines were carved from wood, covered with soil and painted. Often, entire multi-figure compositions were created in a round sculpture (similar to how it was customary in the reliefs of the Old Kingdom
Sculpture of the New Kingdom
In the art of the New Kingdom, a sculptural group portrait appears, especially images of a married couple.
The art of relief acquires new qualities. This artistic area is noticeably influenced by certain genres of literature that became widespread in the era of the New Kingdom: hymns, military chronicles, love lyrics. Often, texts in these genres are combined with relief compositions in temples and tombs. In the reliefs of the Theban temples, there is an increase in decorativeness, a free variation in the techniques of bas-relief and high relief, combined with colorful paintings. Such is the portrait of Amenhotep III from the tomb of Khaemhet, which combines different heights of the relief and in this respect is an innovative work. The reliefs are still arranged in registers, allowing you to create narrative cycles of great spatial extent.
Wooden sculpture of one of the Egyptian gods with a ram's head
Sculpture of the Late Kingdom
During Kush's time in the field of sculpture, the skills of ancient high craftsmanship partly fade away - for example, portrait images on funeral masks and statues are often replaced by conventionally idealized ones. At the same time, the technical skill of sculptors is improving, manifesting itself mainly in the decorative field. One of the best portrait works is the head of the statue of Mentuemhet, made in a realistic authentic manner.
During the reign of Sais, static, conditional outlines of faces, canonical poses and even a semblance of an “archaic smile” characteristic of the art of the Early and Ancient Kingdom again become relevant in sculpture. However, the masters of Sais interpret these techniques only as a topic for stylizations. At the same time, Saisi art creates many wonderful portraits. In some of them, deliberately archaic forms, imitating ancient rules, are combined with rather bold deviations from the canon. So, in the statue of the approximate pharaoh Psametikh I, the canon symmetrical image seated figure, but, in violation of it, the left leg of the seated person is placed vertically. In the same way, the canonical-static forms of the body and the modern style of depicting faces are freely combined.
In the few monuments of the era of Persian rule, purely Egyptian style features also predominate. Even the Persian king Darius is depicted on the relief in the attire of an Egyptian warrior with sacrificial gifts, and his name is written in hieroglyphs.
Most of the sculptures of the Ptolemaic period are also made in the traditions of the Egyptian canon. However, the Hellenistic culture influenced the nature of the interpretation of the face, introducing greater plasticity, softness and lyricism.
Ancient Egypt. Male head from the Salt collection. The first half of 3 thousand BC.
Figurine of the porter Meir. Tomb of Niankhpepi. VI dynasty, reign of Peggy II (2235-2141 BC). Cairo Museum
PEASANT WITH A HOE. For earthworks, a hoe was used, which was originally wooden, then metal appeared, consisting of two parts: a handle and a lever.
Three bearers of sacrificial gifts. Wood, painting; height 59 cm; length 56 cm; Meir, tomb of Niankhpepi the Black; excavations of the Egyptian Antiquities Service (1894); VI dynasty, the reign of Pepi I (2289-2255 BC).
Sculpture of Ancient Egypt
Sculpture of Ancient Egypt- one of the most original and strictly canonically developed areas of art of Ancient Egypt. Sculpture was created and developed to represent the ancient Egyptian gods, pharaohs, kings and queens in physical form. There were also many images of ka in the graves of ordinary Egyptians, mostly made of wood, some of which have survived. Statues of gods and pharaohs were put on public display, as a rule, in open spaces and outside temples. The Great Sphinx at Giza has not been repeated anywhere else in full size, but the alleys of reduced copies of the sphinx and other animals have become an indispensable attribute of many temple complexes. The most sacred image of God was in the temple, in the altar part, as a rule, in a boat or a barque, usually made of precious metals, however, not a single such image has been preserved. A huge number of carved figurines have been preserved - from figures of gods to toys and dishes. Such figurines were made not only from wood, but also from alabaster, a more expensive material. Wooden images of slaves, animals and property were placed in tombs to accompany the dead in the afterlife.
Statues, as a rule, retain the original shape of a block of stone or a piece of wood from which it is carved. In traditional statues of seated scribes, similarities with the shape of a pyramid (cubic statue) are just as often found.
There was a very strict canon for the creation of ancient Egyptian sculpture: the color of the body of a man had to be darker than the color of the body of a woman, the hands of a seated person had to be exclusively on his knees. There were certain rules for depicting the Egyptian gods: for example, the god Horus should have been depicted with the head of a falcon, the god of the dead Anubis with the head of a jackal. All sculptures were created according to this canon and the following was so strict that for almost three thousand years of the existence of Ancient Egypt it has not changed.
Sculpture of the Early Kingdom
Statue of pharaoh Khasekhemui.
Sculpture of the early dynastic period comes mainly from the three major centers where the temples were located - She, Abydos and Koptos. The statues served as an object of worship, rituals and had a dedicatory purpose. A large group of monuments was associated with the “heb-sed” rite, a ritual of renewal of the physical power of the pharaoh. This type includes types of sitting and walking figures of the king, executed in round sculpture and relief, as well as the image of his ritual run, which is characteristic only for compositions in relief.
The list of heb-sed monuments includes the statue of Pharaoh Khasekhem, represented as sitting on a throne in ritual attire. This sculpture indicates the improvement of techniques: the figure has the correct proportions and is modeled in volume. Here the main features of the style have already been revealed - the monumentality of the form, the frontality of the composition. The pose of the statue, which fits into the rectangular block of the throne, is motionless; straight lines predominate in the outlines of the figure. Khasekhem's face is portrait, although his features are largely idealized. The setting of the eyes in the orbit with a convex eyeball draws attention. A similar technique of execution extended to the entire group of monuments of that time, being a characteristic stylistic feature of portraits of the Early Kingdom. By the same period, the canonicity of the full-length pre-dynastic period is established and gives way in the plastic of the Early Kingdom to the correct transfer of the proportions of the human body.
New features also appeared in the reliefs. If in the previous era the masters usually preferred multi-figured compositions, now they strove for a concise form of expression. The more minor, particular features are discarded in the images, the stronger the main and essential in the image becomes, acquiring a multi-valued meaning, elevating it to the category of a symbol. A good example of this is the famous stele from Abydos of King I of the Dynasty of Jet. Here the artist found simple and capacious visual means. The hieroglyph of the snake, which meant the name of Jet, fits into a rectangular field above the conditional reproduction of the palace facade “serekh”, which symbolized the earthly abode of the pharaoh and served as a dwelling for the deity, embodied in the guise of a reigning ruler.
The strict vertical articulation of the façade, similar to architectural structures, contrasts in Jet's stele with the flexible body of a snake. The image of the falcon of Horus, which was part of the name of the pharaohs of the Zeroth Dynasty and the Early Kingdom, was an example of the calligraphic writing of the corresponding hieroglyphic sign.
In the composition, one can notice the displacement of images to the left relative to the frame of the stele and the central vertical axis. This technique is based on the rhythmic balance of the "golden section" proportions.
Sculpture of the Old Kingdom
Statue of Kaaper ("Village Headman"). Cairo Museum. Egypt.
Many sculptural monuments have survived from the era of the Old Kingdom, most of which had a ritual purpose. Burials and temples are replete with portrait images of the doubles of the dead - ka, in which the portrait art of Egypt took shape. The art of the Old Kingdom is especially rich in such monuments. These include not only sculptures in full height, but also the "Gizeh heads" - casts and sculptures of heads that do not have traditional coloring and probably served as working models for portrait images.
Statue compositions in the Old Kingdom strictly followed a certain number of canonized types. Standing figures with the left leg extended forward, sitting on a throne or kneeling, were especially widespread. The canonical type of the statue of a scribe was widely used. In connection with ritual purposes, the technique of complex eye inlay or relief stroking along the contour of the eyelids, as well as careful decorative design of statues, which, despite the canonical composition, received an individual pictorial interpretation, have long been introduced into use. Such are the sculptural portraits of the architect Rahotep (son of Pharaoh Snefru) and his wife Nofret - the archaeologists themselves who excavated were shocked by the liveliness and expressiveness of these sculptures; royal scribes, the nephew of Pharaoh Cheops, the architect Hemiun. Ancient Egyptian artists achieved high skill in wooden sculpture (the statue of Kaaper, known as the "Village Headman"). In the tombs, small figurines depicting working people are found everywhere. Here the canon is observed less strictly, although the masters do their best to avoid imbalance in the position of the figure.
Reliefs in this era are not limited to the sphere of small forms. A plot narrative appears in them, which is especially characteristic of ritual images in tombs. A strict system of their placement gradually develops: at the entrance to the temple or to the tomb, full-length figures of two deities or the owner of the tomb are placed. Further along the walls of the corridors there are images of the bearers of gifts, plotted towards the middle niche with a false entrance. Above the niche of the doorway, there was usually an image of the deceased in front of the altar. Such ensembles were carried out by a group of masters according to a single plan, strictly corresponding to the character architectural solution. Reliefs (bas-relief and relief with a deep contour) differed in the plane of execution and were usually painted with paints. Relief compositions were complemented by painting.
Sculpture of the Middle Kingdom
Three granite statues of Pharaoh Senusret III. British museum. London
Significant changes in sculpture take place precisely in the Middle Kingdom, which is largely due to the presence and creative rivalry of many local schools that gained independence during the period of collapse. Since the XII dynasty, ritual statues have been more widely used (and, accordingly, made in large quantities): they are now installed not only in tombs, but also in temples. Among them, images associated with the rite of heb-sed (the ritual revival of the pharaoh's life force) still dominate. The first stage of the rite was symbolically associated with the murder of the elderly ruler and was performed over his statue, which in composition resembled the canonical images and sculptures of sarcophagi. This type includes the heb-sed statue of Mentuhotep-Nebhepetr, depicting the pharaoh in a pointedly frozen pose with arms crossed on his chest. The style is distinguished by a large share of conventionality and generalization, which is generally typical for sculptural monuments of the beginning of the era. In the future, sculpture comes to a more subtle modeling of faces and greater plastic dissection: this is most evident in female portraits and images of private individuals.
Over time, the iconography of the kings also changes. By the 12th Dynasty, the idea of the pharaoh's divine power gave way in depictions to an insistent attempt to convey human individuality. The heyday of sculpture with official themes falls on the reign of Senusret III, who was depicted at all ages - from childhood to adulthood. The best of these images are the obsidian head of Senusret III and the sculptural portraits of his son Amenemhat III. The original find of the masters of local schools can be considered a type of cubic statue - an image of a figure enclosed in a monolithic stone block.
The art of the Middle Kingdom is the era of the heyday of small-scale plastic arts, most of which are still associated with the funeral cult and its rites (sailing on a boat, bringing sacrificial gifts, etc.). The figurines were carved from wood, covered with soil and painted. Often, whole multi-figure compositions were created in round sculpture (similar to how it was customary in the reliefs of the Old Kingdom).
Sculpture of the New Kingdom
Relief from the tomb of Khaemkhet
The art of the New Kingdom is distinguished by a significant development of monumental sculpture, the purpose of which now often goes beyond the sphere of funerary cult. In the Theban sculpture of the New Kingdom, features appear that have not hitherto been characteristic not only of official, but also of secular art. Individuality distinguishes portrait images of Hatshepsut.
In the art of the New Kingdom, a sculptural group portrait appears, especially images of a married couple.
The art of relief acquires new qualities. This artistic area is noticeably influenced by some genres of literature that became widespread in the era of the New Kingdom: hymns, military chronicles, love lyrics. Often, texts in these genres are combined with relief compositions in temples and tombs. In the reliefs of the Theban temples, there is an increase in decorativeness, a free variation in the techniques of bas-relief and high relief, combined with colorful paintings. Such is the portrait of Amenhotep III from the tomb of Khaemhet, which combines different heights of the relief and in this respect is an innovative work. The reliefs are still arranged in registers, allowing the creation of narrative cycles of vast spatial extent.
Amarna period
Bust of Nefertiti
The art of the Amarna period is remarkable for its remarkable originality, which stems primarily from the nature of the new worldview. The most unusual fact is the rejection of a strictly idealized, sacred understanding of the image of the pharaoh. The new style was even reflected in the colossi of Amenhotep IV, installed in the temple of Aten at Karnak. These statues contain not only the typical canonical techniques of monumental art, but also a new understanding of portraiture, which now required a reliable transfer of the pharaoh's appearance up to the characteristic features of the body structure. The criterion of plausibility was a kind of protest against the former official art, therefore the word “maat” is filled with a special meaning - truth. Images of Akhenaten are a curious example of a combination of authenticity with the requirement of extreme generalization and normativity inherent in Egyptian art. The shape of the pharaoh's head, the unusually elongated oval of the face, thin arms and narrow chin - all these features are carefully preserved and reflected in the new tradition, but at the same time all visual techniques were fixed on special samples - sculptural models.
The characteristic techniques of depicting the pharaoh were also extended to members of his family. A frank innovation was the depiction of the figures entirely in profile, which was previously not allowed by the Egyptian canon. The fact that ethnic features were preserved in the portrait was also new: such is the head of the pharaoh's mother, Queen Tii, inlaid with gold and glassy paste. An intimate lyrical beginning is manifested in the Amarna reliefs, filled with natural plasticity and not containing canonical frontal images.
The culmination of the development of fine arts is rightly considered the work of the sculptors of Tutmes' workshop. Among them is the well-known polychrome head of Queen Nefertiti in a blue tiara. Together with the completed works, a lot of plaster masks were found in the excavations of the sculptural workshops, which served as models.
Art of Ancient Egypt. Portrait sculpture of the Old Kingdom.
As already mentioned, the funeral cult largely determined the appearance of portrait sculpture. But he also limited its development to certain limits. The monotony of the calm, motionless (sitting or standing) poses of statues endowed with the same attributes, the conditional coloring of their bodies (men's - red-brown paint, women's - yellow, hair - black, clothes - white) - all this was dictated by the requirements of the cult, which intended these statues are for the "eternal" life of the soul of the deceased.
The eyes of the statues were often inlaid with other materials, which achieved greater expressiveness and vitality.
The statues are not designed to be viewed from different angles, they seem to be leaning back against the plane of the stone block that serves as a backdrop for them. Viewers see them only from the front, they are entirely frontal. The statues are also characterized by absolute symmetry, the strictest balance of the right and left halves of the body. This rule is strictly observed not only in the depiction of a standing figure, but also in the transfer of all other poses characteristic of Egyptian sculpture of all times.
The Egyptian artist usually began his work by applying on a rectangular block of stone from which the statue was to be carved, according to a pre-drawn grid, a drawing of the image that he wanted to receive. Then, by carving, he removed the excess stone, processed the details, polished and polished the statue. But even in a finished work of art, one could always feel the rectangular edges of the block from which it was "liberated" by the artist. This explains the "geometrism" of Egyptian sculpture, which is its most characteristic feature.
Along with the statues of kings and nobles, there develops a type of scribe sitting at work, usually with a papyrus scroll on his knees. The variety of compositions was small. The pose of Pharaoh Khafre, seated on a throne, is characteristic of all seated figures of the Old Kingdom and of most statues of subsequent times. In a standing figure of a man, the left leg is always pushed forward, the arms are either lowered along the body, or one of them rests on a staff. The female figure usually stands with closed legs, right hand lowered along the body, the left lies in front at the waist. The neck is almost absent, the head sometimes rests almost directly on the shoulders, the gaps between the arms and the body, between the legs are almost always not drilled, and these parts of the remaining stone are conditionally painted over in the so-called empty colors, black or white. It was impossible, due to the special tasks of the funeral cult, to convey instant moods, random postures.
Physical strength was emphasized in the figures of pharaohs and noble persons. While retaining some undoubtedly portrait features, the authors discarded minor details, imparted to their faces an impassive expression, and generalized powerful, stately monumental forms of the body.
But the most talented sculptors, even within the restraining framework of the canon, managed to create a number of wonderful, vivid portrait works. Examples of such individualized statues are the sculptures of the 4th dynasty - the statues of noble people Rahotep and Nofret (Cairo Museum) and the bust of the royal son Ankhhaf (Boston, Museum of Fine Arts), the architect Hemiun (Cairo Museum), as well as the head of a male statue from the Salt collection (Paris , Louvre) and statues of the 5th dynasty - the nobles Ranofer (Cairo Museum), the scribe Kai (Paris, Louvre) and Prince Kaaper (Cairo Museum).
These portraits do not simply repeat the appearance of a particular person. These are images created by selecting the most characteristic features of the person being portrayed.
Sculptors of the 5th-6th dynasties began to resort more and more often to expensive wood, which made it possible to solve such problems that seemed unsolvable in round plastic, despite all the brilliance of the achievements of stone sculpture of the 3rd and 4th dynasties. The movements of the statues become freer, although the main canon remains in force when transferring the human figure.
Before us is the face of a Louvre scribe, then the smiling, good-natured face of a stout, elderly dignitary of the fifth dynasty, Kaaper, whom the fellahs who found him called the “village headman” because of his striking resemblance to the headman whom they knew. No wonder the Egyptian sculptor was called "sankh", which means "creator of life." By creating a form, the artist, as it were, magically called it to life.
Dozens of figurines depicting servants and slaves were also placed in the tombs, which differed from the portraits of pharaohs and noble persons by conveying in them only typical ethnic features of the Egyptians, without any hint of portraiture. Their purpose is to serve their masters in the afterlife. Made of brightly painted wood and stone, they realistically convey the features of the appearance of peasants, cooks, porters, etc.
When exactly the most ancient statue of the world, the sculpture of the Sphinx, was erected, scientists have not yet determined: some believe that the world saw this grandiose structure as early as the thirtieth century BC. But most researchers are still more careful in their assumptions and claim that the Sphinx is no more than fifteen thousand years old.
This means that already at the time of the creation of the most grandiose monument of mankind (the height of the Sphinx exceeded twenty meters, and the length was more than seventy), art was already well developed in Egypt, in particular, sculpture. It turns out that the statue of the Sphinx is actually much older than the Egyptian culture, which appeared in the 4th millennium BC.
Most researchers question this version and so far agree that the face of the Sphinx is the face of Pharaoh Hevren, who lived around 2575-2465. BC e. - which means that it indicates that this grandiose structure was carved out of a monolithic limestone rock by the Egyptians. And he guards the pyramids of the pharaohs in Giza.
Almost all researchers agree that the funeral cult of the inhabitants of ancient Egypt played an important role in the development of sculpture, if only because they were convinced: human soul she could well return to earth to her body, the mummies (it was for this purpose that huge tombs were created, structures in which the deceased bodies of pharaohs and nobles were supposed to be). If the mummy could not be preserved, it could well move into its likeness - a statue (which is why the ancient Egyptians called the sculptor "creating life").
They created this life according to once and for all established canons, from which they did not deviate for several millennia (especially for this, special instructions and manuals were even provided and developed). Ancient masters used special templates, stencils and grids with canonically established proportions and contours of people and animals.
The work of the sculptor consisted of several stages:
- Before starting to work on the statue, the master chose a suitable stone, usually a rectangular one;
- After that, using a stencil, he applied the desired pattern to it;
- Then he removed the excess stone by carving, after which he processed the details, polished and polished the sculpture.
Characteristics of Egyptian sculptures
Basically, ancient Egyptian statues depicted rulers, nobles. Also popular was the figure of a working scribe (he was usually depicted with a papyrus scroll on his knees). Sculptures of gods and rulers were usually put on public display in open spaces.
The statue of the Sphinx was especially popular - despite the fact that structures of such dimensions as in Giza were never made anywhere else, there were many of its reduced duplicates. Alleys with its copies and other mystical beasts could be seen in almost all the temples of ancient Egypt.
Considering that the Egyptians considered the pharaoh to be the embodiment of God on earth, the sculptors emphasized the greatness and invincibility of their rulers with special techniques - the arrangement of figures and scenes, their sizes, postures and gestures (poses intended to convey any moment or mood were not allowed).
The ancient Egyptians portrayed the gods only according to strictly defined rules (for example, Horus had the head of a falcon, while the god of the dead, Anubis, had a jackal). The poses of the human statues (both sitting and standing) were rather monotonous and the same. For all the seated figures, the pose of the pharaoh Khafre sitting on the throne was characteristic. The figure is majestic and static, the ruler looks at the world without any emotions and it is obvious to anyone who sees him that nothing can shake his power, and the character of the pharaoh is imperious and adamant.
If the sculpture depicting a man is standing, his left foot always takes a step forward, his hands are either lowered down, or he leans on a staff holding in his hands. After some time, another pose was added for men - the “scribe”, a man in the lotus position.
At first, only the sons of the pharaohs were depicted this way. The woman stands straight, her legs are closed, her right hand is lowered, her left is at her waist. Interestingly, she does not have a neck, her head is simply connected to her shoulders. Also, the craftsmen almost never drilled the gaps between her arms, body and legs - they usually marked them in black or white.
The bodies of the statues of the master were usually made powerful and well developed, giving the sculpture solemnity and grandeur. As for the faces, portrait features are, of course, present here. In the work on the statue, the sculptors discarded minor details, and gave faces an impassive expression.
The coloring of ancient Egyptian statues also did not differ in particular variety:
- male figures were painted red-brown,
- women's - in yellow,
- hair - in black;
- clothes - in white;
The Egyptians had a special relationship with the eyes of the sculptures - they believed that the dead through them could well observe earthly life. Therefore, the masters usually inserted precious, semi-precious stones or other materials into the eyes of the statues. This technique allowed them to achieve greater expressiveness and even revive them a little.
Egyptian statues (meaning not fundamental structures, but smaller items) were not designed to be viewed from all sides - they were completely frontal, many of them seem to lean back against a stone block, which serves as a background for them.
Egyptian sculptures are characterized by complete symmetry - the right and left half of the body are absolutely identical. Geometricity is felt in almost all the statues of ancient Egypt - this is most likely due to the fact that they were made of rectangular stone.
The evolution of Egyptian sculptures
Since creativity cannot but respond to the changes that take place in the life of society, Egyptian art did not stand still and changed somewhat over time - and began to be intended not only for funeral rites, but also for other structures - temples, palaces, etc.
If at first they depicted only gods (a large statue of one or another deity made of precious metals was located in the temple dedicated to him, in the altar), sphinxes, rulers and nobles, then later they began to depict ordinary Egyptians. These figurines were mostly made of wood.
A lot of small figurines made of wood and alabaster have survived to this day - and among them were figures of animals, sphinxes, slaves, and even property (many of them subsequently accompanied the dead to the other world).
Statues of the Early Kingdom (4th millennium BC)
Sculpture during this period developed mainly in the three largest cities of Egypt - On, Kyptos and Abydos: it was here that temples were located with statues of gods, sphinxes, mystical animals installed in them, which the Egyptians worshipped. Most of the sculptures were associated with the ritual of renewal of the physical strength of the ruler (“heb-sed”) - these are, first of all, either figures of sitting or walking pharaohs carved into the wall or represented in a round sculpture.
A striking example of this type of statue is the sculpture of Pharaoh Hasekhem sitting on a pedestal, dressed in ritual clothes. Already here you can see the main features of ancient Egyptian culture - the correct proportions, which are dominated by straight lines and monumentality of form. Despite the fact that his face has individual features, they are overly idealized, and his eyes have a convex eyeball, traditional for all sculptures of that era.
At this time, canonicity and brevity are established in the form of expression - secondary signs are discarded and attention is focused on the majesty in the image.
Statues of the Old Kingdom (XXX - XXIII centuries BC)
All statues of this period continue to be made according to previously established canons. It cannot be said that preference is given to any particular pose (especially for male figures) - both statues are popular in full growth with the left leg extended forward, and sitting on a throne, sitting with their legs crossed in the shape of a lotus or kneeling.
At the same time, precious or semi-precious stones were inserted into the eyes, and relief eyeliner was made. Moreover, the statues began to be decorated with jewels, thanks to which they began to acquire individual features (sculptural portraits of the architect Rahotep and his wife Nofret can serve as examples of such works).
At this time, wooden sculpture was significantly improved (for example, the figure known as the “Village Headman”), and in the tombs of those times one can often see figurines that depict working people.
Statues of the Middle Kingdom (XXI-XVII centuries BC)
During the Middle Kingdom in Egypt, there are a huge number of different schools - accordingly, the development of sculpture is undergoing significant changes. They begin to be made not only for tombs, but also for temples. At this time, the so-called cubic statue appeared, which is a figure enclosed in a monolithic stone. Wooden statues are still popular, which the craftsmen, after being cut out of wood, covered with soil and painted.
Sculptors are increasingly paying attention to the individual characteristics of a person - with the help of perfectly designed elements, they show in their works the character of a person, his age and even his mood (for example, with just a glance at the head of Pharaoh Senusret III, it becomes clear that it was once a strong-willed , imperious, ironic ruler).
Statues of the New Kingdom (XVI-XIV centuries BC)
During the period of the New Kingdom, monumental sculpture received special development. Not only does it more and more often go beyond the limits of the funerary cult, but individual features also begin to appear in it, which are not characteristic not only of official, but even of secular sculpture.
Yes, and secular sculpture, especially when it comes to the female figure, acquires softness, plasticity, becomes more intimate. If earlier women-pharaohs, according to the canons, were often depicted in full royal attire and even with a beard, now they get rid of these features and become elegant, graceful, refined.
Amarna period (beginning of the 14th century BC)
At this time, sculptors begin to abandon the highly idealized, sacred image of the pharaoh. For example, on the example of the huge statues of Amenhotep IV, one can see not only traditional techniques, but also an attempt to convey as accurately as possible the appearance of the pharaoh (both face and figure).
Another innovation was the depiction of figures in profile (previously the canon did not allow this). During this period, the world-famous head of Nefertiti in a blue tiara, created by the sculptors of the workshop of Thutmes, also arose.
Statues of the Late Kingdom (XI - 332 BC)
At this time, the masters begin to adhere to the canons less and less, and they gradually come to naught and become conditionally idealized. Instead, They begin to improve their technical skills, especially in the decorative part (for example, one of the best sculptures of that time is the head of the statue of Mentuemhet, made in a realistic style).
When Sais was in power, the masters again returned to monumentality, static and canonical poses, but they interpret this in their own way and their statues become more stylized.
After in 332 BC. Alexander the Great conquered Egypt, this country lost its independence, and the cultural heritage of ancient Egypt finally and irrevocably merged with ancient culture.
