creative path Shakespeare is divided into three stages. From the first chronicles, early comedies and poems to "Romeo and Juliet" And "Julius Caesar"(1590--1599); then off "Hamlet" To "Timon of Athens"(1600--1608) - a tragic time, covering the heights of Shakespearean drama, and, finally, the late period - before leaving (1609--1613), fairy-tale or romantic dramas, among them parting words - "Storm", and the last, somewhat lonely chronicle "Henry III", written, as some researchers believe, not only by Shakespeare. There are also more fractional divisions. They capture additional shades without changing the general line of Shakespeare's creativity.

In his first stage experiments, Shakespeare turned to the past of England, comparatively recent for those times. At first, Shakespeare followed history, then, however, he moved back, turned to earlier times, representing the troubles of the Hundred Years War.

If we break the order of appearance of Shakespearean chronicles and arrange them in accordance with the historical sequence: "King John" (1596), "Richard II" (1595), "Henry IV" (part 1-I, 1597-1598), "Henry V "(1598), "Henry VI" (part G--III, 1590-1592), "Richard III" (1592), "Henry VIII" (1613), then from the time of King John Landless to the reign of Henry VIII - the father of Queen Elizabeth, in other words, close to the Shakespearean era, a picture of the rise of England, the growth of its state solidity and greatness, will unfold.

Feudal feuds, the enmity of the Scarlet and White Roses, the famous battle of Azincourt, the wars in France, the uprising of Jack Cade, the battle of Bosworth are important milestones in Russian history and, of course, the largest figures - kings, nobles, commanders, folk heroes: Jeanne d "Arc or Jack Ked - all this is captured in living movement by Shakespeare's chronicles.

Shakespeare dealt with historical facts freely. He took as the basis of the plays not so much the facts as the prevailing idea of ​​these facts, of historical events and figures. Shakespeare was true to history in that. It is accurate when we are talking about the trends of the time, about where and how English history was moving at that time. Shakespeare achieves special truth and expressiveness in the types of the past, in the depiction of the characters of the past. This is not a restoration, but in fact - types of the past, preserved, however, from bygone centuries to the Shakespearean era. In line with the era driven by the idea of ​​historical time, when the old world was revived and the New Time was realized against its background, just as the New World was opened across the ocean, Shakespeare embodied in historical plots and situations, and especially in characters, the nature of bygone times. This is artistic historicism. Shakespeare's time serves as an answer to basic historical and social questions. In Shakespeare's chronicles, the opposition feudal lords are told that it is not the will of the king that abolishes them, but time. And they themselves, resisting the centralizing power, are aware that they are trying to stop history.

Shakespeare swept the whole country, the whole nation, the people in the historical movement. Shakespeare's gaze had an enormous extension in space and time. Shakespeare summed up the thousand-year results in his chronicles, observing and showing the formation of English statehood. Shakespeare's strength is manifested in the ability to convey both "time" as an era that forms "contemporaries" and the scale of historical times.

At the beginning of the chronicle "Henry IV" it is said that the English are to fulfill a duty which has weighed upon them for fourteen centuries. Then the king announces that "twelve months have passed" since they decided to fulfill this duty. And finally, he moves on to the decisions of the Council of State adopted "yesterday". Thus, in a living and immediate connection, as something close and tangible, history is comprehended. The characters, and along with them Shakespeare and his audience, felt like participants in a process that stretched out for almost one and a half thousand years: centuries are experienced as real as what happened “yesterday”.

In Shakespeare's very first chronicle, the image of a patriarchal life, a peaceful and unpretentious existence, opposes the "court vanity", appears as an alluring, welcome refuge from the ensuing elements of bloody ambitions, a desirable but unattainable refuge. The feeling of the historical course of time is found in the turns of events and personal destinies, it is found at the very beginning of the playwright's creative path. And right there, the need for balance manifests itself in a living form, and one can grasp its social prototype and real ground.

A series of comedies interspersed with the cycle of chronicles in Shakespeare's work - all ten of Shakespeare's "merry comedies" were created in the first period of his dramatic activity. The contrast in the social, moral and emotional atmosphere of these groups of works is obvious: “bloody days” in chronicles and “merry days” in comedies - The Comedy of Errors (1592), A Midsummer Night's Dream (1595), Much Ado About Nothing (1598), As You Like It (1599).

Shakespeare's chronicles and comedies are independent spheres of dramatic creativity, taking into account the different tasks of the theatrical spectacle and the peculiarities of the genres, but not isolated, but interconnected. "Funny Comedies" correlate with chronicles saturated with drama, but not because they are able to serve as a comic release of dramatic tension and not as a commentary that arouses a good state of mind.

Early tragedies contain motifs that predict tragedy "Hamlet" And "King Lear". The active participation of brother Lorenzo in the fate of Romeo and Juliet, prompted and sanctified by Renaissance humanism, ends not with the triumph of his humane intention, but with the death of the heroes. Circumstances are stronger than inspired efforts and good intentions. The confluence of events that prevented their fulfillment does not mitigate the tragedy of the situation, does not free the active humanist from a sense of personal guilt, and points to the tragic discrepancy between the ideal ideas of humanists and self-willed reality.

Among Shakespeare's plays, a special group is made up of four "antique" dramas --Julius Caesar (1599), Antony and Cleopatra (1606), Coriolanus (1607), Timon of Athens (1608).

"Julius Caesar"- a play "turn of the century", a transitional phenomenon in Shakespeare's work. It follows nine chronicles from English history, behind the unfinished cycle of national chronicles, expanding the historical horizon of Shakespearean dramaturgy. It precedes the great tragedies and is a "tragedy chronicle", a mixed and transitional genre. It focuses on the political history of a turning point and tragic fate its great figures, exposing the objective basis of the movement of historical time, the inflexibility of the historical process and the real consequences of subjective aspirations and will.

As in his other plays, deploying the action in foreign countries and in other times, Shakespeare also depicts contemporary England. However, Ancient Rome in "Julius Caesar" is not a pseudonym for London, it retains both national and historical features. in "Julius Caesar" the political and civil climate and characters of politicians are obvious ancient rome. In "Julius Caesar" the action is connected with the city, with city problems, and this drama is actually "urban", from the velvety lawns under the "green tree" the action is transferred once and for all to the city stone. The same urban atmosphere in "Coriolane" and in British tragedy proper "King Lear" the same "stone" cruelty is manifested in the state of mind of the characters.

Shakespeare conveys a specific and paradoxical state: when all-round progress, expansion of horizons shorten the Universe in the human mind, the world becomes narrow and small. The city crowd in "Julius Caesar" appears as a formidable force, such a force of historical movement, which was not in the chronicles of the history of England. Shakespeare deeply sympathizes with the urban poor, especially if they are at the mercy of clever demagogues, as in the tragedy Coriolanus, he does justice to the demands of the urban masses, he is ready to understand their extreme despair and bitterness when they are determined to rebel.

And outside antique dramas Shakespearean tragedy, like everything inherent in Shakespeare, is distinguished by its scale. The modern approach, based on historicism, sees tragedy in Shakespeare's plays in the development of large processes that reveal themselves through characters and their struggle.

At the decisive stage of his work, Shakespeare rose to the tragedy that accompanied the Renaissance.

Every Shakespearean tragedy is a tragedy "their time" originating from the contradictions of the main course of history in the Renaissance. The discovery of the New World and the loss of illusions about some promised lands

It is important that Shakespeare's contemporary points out that Hamlets became "full, full" ten years before the appearance of Shakespeare's tragedy: the type immortalized by Shakespeare was being formed. The exclusivity, "loneliness" of Hamlet, therefore, is conditional. Hamlet himself does not quite understand what is "remembered" in him. Hence - the "mysteriousness" of his condition, his remarks, paradoxes.

New beliefs in the minds of Hamlet and all other tragic heroes of Shakespeare do not exist in a "pure form", but in various connections and interweaving with traditional beliefs. The heroic characters in Shakespeare's tragedies are a complex alloy created by the influence of various forces - a semi-patriarchal environment and its collapse, transitional times with its stormy fermentation, causing spiritual upsurge, and bourgeois development, which served both as the basis for change and the cause of the crisis.

IN "King Lear" (1605) the material of the tragedy is a tangle of historical strata. People in it are afraid of witches - and they are not afraid of absolutely anything in the world, they still believe in the stars - and do not believe in anything at all. Man feels himself to be both a two-legged animal and the master of his own destiny. The time is ripe, the conflicts have been determined.” And this is not only a conflict between two generations, it is the collapse of centuries-old eras. The scale of what is happening: history is not in the sense - the distant past, similar to the present, but history itself as a process: one thing goes away, another comes.

A dispute with his daughter over a retinue - the king wants to leave behind him a retinue as a shell where his world would be preserved, reduced, but still the same world. The world of Lear's valor is the world of rough valor, bestial youth.

Shakespeare shows how tenaciously people cling to "their time" and how they are carried along with it. Time is embodied in people The key words of this tragedy are root, blood, seed, genus, and especially nature. These words, in which time and place are intertwined - history, are saturated with Shakespeare's text. Behind the words - concepts, behind the concepts - a look at things, a way of life, the very one that has become dilapidated and is cracking at the seams under the pressure of change.

The differentiation of people in tragedy occurs according to how they understand nature, in what they seek it - in themselves or above themselves. No matter how great Lear's arrogance, he still considers himself only a particle of nature, meanwhile Edmund is much more daring in his pride, but he also sees in himself the focus of nature.

Shakespeare, who painted antiquity, patriarchy is so interested that he was even suspected of an “aristocratic” predilection for the past, in King Lear he almost does not reveal this predilection. Rather, on the contrary, with sharp strokes it makes it clear that the old time has completely grown old and outlived its own. The past is leaving. Shakespeare shows this clearly and concisely. But he follows the advent of new times in detail and from different angles. Shakespeare creates the ultimate tragic tension or even a tragic balance of power.

One cannot derive from Shakespeare some one-line "idea", but Shakespeare has his own special wisdom. He expresses it in "King Lear" briefly, in essence in one phrase: "Maturity is everything."

Shakespeare is engaged in the analysis of both man and society - separately, in indirect and direct connections. He analyzes the sensual and spiritual nature of man, the interaction and struggle of feelings, states of mind in their movement and transitions, the development of affects, their mobilizing and destructive power. He focuses his analysis on the critical states of consciousness, on the causes of the spiritual crisis, the causes of external and internal, subjective and objective, superficial and deep. It reveals the incentives and logic of human behavior in its direct and indirect ties with society. Such inclusiveness, psychological and social insight, accuracy and richness of analysis are characteristic of English literature Renaissance only to Shakespeare, his tragedies - the pinnacle of not only English, but all European Renaissance literature.

IN "Othello"(1604) is not exposed, on the contrary, the dependence of the tragic consciousness of the hero and his death on the social environment is, as it were, emphatically removed. Othello has risen with his own efforts, but with his own hands he destroys his valor, glory, love and life, destroys not only himself, but also Desdemona - the embodiment of the Renaissance ideal of femininity, sublime, spiritualized and really earthly. This is the peculiarity of the character of the protagonist and the plot of the tragedy. For the time being, the aspirations of Othello and Iago did not collide, but the moment came - and the collision became inevitable. This is not a clash of the new with the old - both Othello and Iago, of course, in different proportions and in different forms, also carry the features of the old, both are raised by the Renaissance, but each in its own way: one - expresses his ideas and partly applies them to broad life practice, the other uses Renaissance norms with energy and immorality, unleashed in the course of the offensive of the new on the transcendental ethics of the Middle Ages.

Iago freed himself not only from prejudices, he overcame all sorts of internal obstacles. Amazing flexibility of character is achieved in him by complete disregard for social norms. This is not the freedom of the mind when a person, understanding the relativity of moral institutions, is aware of their historical meaning, and if he takes upon himself the responsibility of being a judge of his actions, then he relies on reason without abusing it. For Iago, freedom is the freedom of arbitrariness, pursuing personal gain.

Integrity, spontaneity and nobility of character are the fundamental feature of Othello, it is singled out by Shakespeare as distinctive for a person, corresponding to the humanistic ideal. The question of the significance of supernatural forces in Shakespeare's drama, in the development of its plots and characters, in the concept of the tragic continues to occupy Shakespeare scholars, especially in connection with the problem of the realism of Shakespeare's work.

In Shakespeare's last tragedy, Timon of Athens (1608) On the contrary, the connection of the hero's tragedy with the moral state of the social environment, and the moral crisis with the influence of material social forces, is emphasized. If the transition from the first to the second period seems abrupt, but understandably natural, then Shakespeare of the last period looks unrecognizable. The transition here is not even as contrasting as the difference between the optimism of chronicles, comedies, on the one hand, and the gloominess of tragedies, on the other. At the last stage, Shakespeare becomes, as it were, a completely different playwright, although he continues to develop the same themes. The development of the same motives, but in a completely different way, emphasizes the principle of change. The general impression of Shakespeare's last plays, shared by many critics, is that these are Shakespearean situations depicted, as it were, not by Shakespeare, but by a playwright of another school, although there is no doubt about Shakespeare's authorship: the plays entered Shakespeare's "canon", and "Storm", concluded the Shakespearean path, opens the collection of 1623. Shakespeare himself has changed significantly, and not only within the boundaries of his own evolution, but also against the backdrop of a completely different literary era.

This is Shakespeare - an older contemporary of Donne and Webster, a young and fundamentally new generation in literature. A generation that recognized its debt to Shakespeare's time, to Shakespeare, and which, at the same time, definitely referred Shakespeare to the past. Shakespeare, for his part, makes an attempt to move in step with the new stage. A characteristic feature of Shakespeare's later works was the ever-increasing "anatomization" of the human psyche, human relationships. In Shakespeare's plays, the number of references to Russia and Russians grows in proportion to the increase in relations between England and Russia, relations put on a state basis precisely in Shakespeare's time.

"Storm" as if returning to a more traditional Shakespearean setting, to the circle of typically Shakespearean characters and at the same time contains a distinct motive of "farewell". According to the plot, the play was a direct response to the event that was the topic of the day, when a large English expedition was wrecked off the coast of America, near Bermuda, which Shakespeare made the setting for The Tempest.

The entire career of Shakespeare - the period from 1590 to 1612. usually divided into three or four periods.

I (optimistic) period (1590-1600)

The general character of the works of the first period can be defined as optimistic, colored by a joyful perception of life in all its diversity, a belief in the triumph of the smart and the good. During this period, Shakespeare mostly writes comedies:

• - "Comedy of Errors"
• - "The Taming of the Shrew",
• - "Two Veronets",
• - Love's Labour's Lost
• - "A dream in a summer night",
• - The Merry Wives of Windsor
• - "Much Ado About Nothing"
• - "As you like it",
• - "Twelfth Night".

The theme of almost all of Shakespeare's comedies is love, its emergence and development, the resistance and intrigues of others, and the victory of a bright young feeling. The action of the works takes place against the backdrop of beautiful landscapes bathed in moonlight or sunlight. This is how it appears before us Magic world Shakespeare's comedies are seemingly far from fun. Shakespeare has a great ability, talented to combine the comic (the witty duels of Benedict and Beatrice in Much Ado About Nothing, Petruchio and Catharina from The Taming of the Shrew) with the lyrical and even tragic (the betrayals of Proteus in The Two Veronians, the intrigues of Shylock in Merchant of Venice). Shakespeare's characters are amazingly multifaceted, their images embody the features characteristic of people of the Renaissance: will, desire for independence, and love of life. Particularly interesting female images of these comedies are equal to a man, free, energetic, active and infinitely charming. Shakespeare's comedies are varied. Shakespeare uses various genres of comedies - a romantic comedy ("A Midsummer Night's Dream"), a comedy of characters ("The Taming of the Shrew"), a sitcom ("Comedy of Errors").

During the same period (1590-1600) Shakespeare wrote a number of historical chronicles. Each of which covers one of the periods of English history.

About the time of the struggle of the Scarlet and White Roses:

• - "Henry VI" (three parts),
• - "Richard III".

On the preceding period of struggle between the feudal barons and the absolute monarchy:

• - "Richard II",
• - "Henry IV" (two parts),
• - "Henry V".

The genre of dramatic chronicle is peculiar only to the English Renaissance. Most likely, this happened because the favorite theatrical genre of the early English Middle Ages was mysteries with secular motifs. The dramaturgy of the mature Renaissance was formed under their influence; and in the dramatic chronicles, many mystery features are preserved: a wide coverage of events, many characters, a free alternation of episodes. However, unlike the mysteries, the chronicles do not present biblical history, but the history of the state. Here, in essence, he also refers to the ideals of harmony - but the harmony of the state, which he sees in the victory of the monarchy over the medieval feudal civil strife. In the finale of the plays, good triumphs; evil, no matter how terrible and bloody was his way, overthrown. Thus, in the first period of Shakespeare's work at different levels - personal and state - the main Renaissance idea is interpreted: the achievement of harmony and humanistic ideals.

During the same period, Shakespeare wrote two tragedies:

• - "Romeo and Juliet",
• - "Julius Caesar".

II (tragic) period (1601-1607)

It is considered the tragic period of Shakespeare's work. Dedicated mainly to tragedy. It was during this period that the playwright reaches the pinnacle of his work:

• - "Hamlet" (1601),
• - "Othello" (1604),
• - "King Lear" (1605),
• - "Macbeth" (1606),
• - "Anthony and Cleopatra" (1607),
• - "Coriolanus" (1607).

There is no longer a trace of a harmonious sense of the world in them; eternal and insoluble conflicts are revealed here. Here the tragedy lies not only in the clash of the individual and society, but also in the internal contradictions in the soul of the hero. The problem is brought to a general philosophical level, and the characters remain unusually multifaceted and psychologically voluminous. At the same time, it is very important that in the great tragedies of Shakespeare there is a complete absence of a fatalistic attitude towards fate, which predetermines tragedy. The main emphasis, as before, is placed on the personality of the hero, who shapes his own destiny and the fate of those around him.

During the same period, Shakespeare wrote two comedies:

• - "The end is the crown of business",
• - "Measure for measure."

III (romantic) period (1608-1612)

It is considered the romantic period of Shakespeare's work.

Works of the last period of his work:

• - "Cymbeline",
• - « winter fairy tale»,
• - "Storm".

These are poetic tales leading away from reality into the world of dreams. The complete conscious rejection of realism and retreat into romantic fantasy is naturally interpreted by Shakespeare scholars as the playwright's disappointment in humanistic ideals, the recognition of the impossibility of achieving harmony. This path - from the triumphantly jubilant faith in harmony to tired disappointment - in fact, the entire worldview of the Renaissance passed.

Shakespeare - the author of the chronicles - had predecessors and teachers, but the poet here from the very beginning took his special place. And his reception is not only original for a poet of the 16th century, but exceptional in general in the field of historical drama.

The prologue to Henry VIII promises the public to portray in the chronicle only the truth and true history, not to resort to "spectacular scenes" and "absurd battles" ... Henry VIII does not belong entirely to Shakespeare, but the prologue quite correctly characterizes him as the author of the chronicles. The poet, with amazing selflessness and tact, obeys his sources, often literally borrows scenes and monologues from the annals of Holinshed and only through an inspired creative process gives the scenes dramatic life and strength, in monologues reflects the fullness of the soul. actors. This art improves rapidly with each chronicle, and the epic, fragmentary dialogues of Henry VI are followed by a series of exciting scenes of Richard II and King John, until finally in Richard III there is a real drama with a deep psychology of the hero and an exemplary sequential development of the action. From a dramatizing chronicler, in a few years, a playwright-psychologist grew up, in the near future the author of great tragedies. And again, as in comedies, the poet managed to merge an unusually skillful response to the demands of the modern public with the fruitful results of personal creativity.

We know that the chronicles on the theater stages were the result of the patriotic sentiments of the era and, of course, had in mind precisely these sentiments. Naturally, Shakespeare hastened to fully satisfy the feelings of the public and his own at the same time. The poet could not remain indifferent to the glory of his fatherland and, perhaps, he really welcomed the death of the "Armada" in his verses: at least some people think so. But this fact is not essential: the chronicles gave the poet any scope for patriotic lyricism, and he took advantage of it with all the swiftness and ardor of his inspiration. Shakespeare's ardent patriotism should be considered the most reliable feature of his moral personality. It is possible not to reckon the unworthy role of the Maid of Orleans among the poet’s patriotic intentions: the chronicle of Henry VI itself is not known to what extent it belongs to Shakespeare, and the personality of Joan of Arc in the 16th century could least of all be presented in its true light, not even to patriots and not to the British, and, finally , the author did not hide the passionate patriotic enthusiasm of Jeanne, the main fact of her biography, but unconditionally authentic Shakespearean chronicles are enough to appreciate the national instinct of the poet.

Before us are the heroes of different social standing- kings and simple lords; different political parties - supporters of the Lancasters and Yorks; different characters - the frivolous despot Richard II and the chivalrous Duke of Ghent, his victim and adversary - and all are equally filled with enthusiastic adoration for their native England, all become sensitive and poets, as soon as it comes to the power of the motherland or its misfortunes, about separation from it.

Richard, returning to England after a short absence, as if the lover welcomes the "sweet land" and "strives to press it to his chest", like the mother of his own son - "both crying and laughing." Ghent, before his death, speaks an enthusiastic speech to the "glorious island", "the country of greatness, the homeland of Mars, earthly Eden", "a shining diamond set in a silver sea". One of the most independent and stern heroes of the chronicles - Norfolk - going into exile for disobedience to Richard, last words, full of longing, draws to England. Not hearing his native language is a torment equal to death for him; to lose one's homeland is to lose the "light of the eyes". In the sad times of King John, the lords lament bitterly about the storm gathering over "the native people", and Prince Philip closes the drama with a real national anthem:

"At the proud feet of a foreign warrior

Britain did not lie in the dust.

And she will never lie in the dust,

Until she hurts herself...

And let the fighters from all over the earth

They come at us - we will push them away!

If England knows how to be England,

Nobody in the world can beat us."

The poet clearly sympathizes with such sentiments. He brings into the chronicles the same anger and ridicule at imitators of foreign fashion that we heard in comedies. Prince Philip equates "service to fashion" with the poison of lies. One of the vices that led to the fall of Richard II was the fascination with Italian fashions: this is an obvious anachronism for the fourteenth century of English history, but it is necessary for the poet for patriotic purposes.

They are all the more important because Shakespeare's policy is limited to them. We should look in vain in his chronicles for the principles and ideas that caused the English civil strife. Questions of general policy played a big role under Richard II and John Landless. Richard II, counting on marriage with a French princess, adopted French etiquette at court and announced his claims to unlimited autocracy, following the example of French sovereigns. It was for these claims that Parliament accused the king of violating the constitution and deposed him. English historians consider this struggle to be the first constitutional struggle in English history. The events under King John are well known: the Magna Carta was created by the joint efforts of the lords, clergy and London townspeople, that is, the legal basis for British freedom was laid. In Shakespeare's chronicles there are no political questions about the power of the king and the rights of his subjects: the poet even skips the era of the creation of the Great Charter in the chronicle and does not deal with Richard's constitutional crimes. His attention is focused on the moral shortcomings of figures, on psychology, and not on politics. With regard to Richard, heavy taxes and the unpopularity of the king among the people are mentioned in passing, and King John, unlike the usual, strictly historical truth of Shakespeare's chronicles, is even greatly embellished in comparison with the real personality of this sovereign. Undoubtedly, with such a formulation of the question, Shakespeare's chronicles turn out to be far from complete, they do not exhaust all the phenomena of historical epochs. Truthful in facts and characters, they omit many significant events and look for heroes first of all as people, not politicians. This truth is abbreviated and often one-sided. It is very characteristic of Shakespeare, a poet indifferent to social movements compared to psychological development individual personalities. But here, quite naturally, the poet-dramatist, who needed mainly strong central figures, and a contemporary of the still almost primitive chronicle historiography, had an effect. And Shakespeare, precisely by the incompleteness of his chronicles, proved only the same conscientiousness in the use of sources. In the second part of Henry VI, he could simply rewrite the humorous scenes from the annals with popular conspirators and on this put an end to the uprising of Ked, in fact, incomparably more important and serious. Subsequently, he will do the same with the plebeians in Coriolanus, borrowing here again the aristocratic spirit from the source. And we cannot demand insight and interpretations from a poet of the 16th century, which even in our time are becoming accessible to far from all scientists.

In his favorite area - psychology and the moral logic of events - Shakespeare drew everything that could be learned from the history of English civil strife. Beginning with Richard II, we constantly encounter motifs that are to develop brilliantly in the most mature creations of the poet.

On the facts of true reality, he is convinced of the irresistible power moral law managing human life. Victory or fall is always and everywhere the inevitable result of a personality structure more or less adapted to the struggle with external conditions. It doesn't take a miracle for a crime to suffer its well-deserved punishment, and it doesn't take exceptional heroes for weakness to pay for its cowardice and mediocrity. One of the heroines and victims of the most severe civil strife expressed a general philosophy of human destiny in connection with several particular cases:

"Edward went in payment for Edward

And death covered the mortal debt

Plantagenet for Plantagenet"...

And this conviction is shared by all the witnesses and perpetrators of the bloody events. Only the culprits come too late to the great truth that

“The Lord does not execute secret executions

Over those who trampled on his law "...

So says the brother of Richard III to the people sent to kill him, and the truth is realized on the most inveterate and courageous representative of evil. This idea runs like a connecting thread through all the turmoil and most intricate intentions of the strong; it does not bypass the weak, who are unworthy of their high position. If the strong must forever remember King John's speech:

“You can’t build solid foundations with blood,

Someone else's death - you can't save a life "...

for the weak and unworthy, a great lesson is the fate of Kings Henry VI and Richard II. One in the highest responsible position yearns for a peaceful shepherd's life and idyllic happiness, the other indulges in pleasures, behind the praises of flatterers he does not hear the groans of the people, and his state garden "died away under weeds"; both will lose power, and Richard II, full of arrogance and self-adoration, will know the poverty of human nature and laugh bitterly at the servility of flatterers and the conceit of rulers. A tormenting persistent work of thought will arise in him, previously unknown to him, and he will search in vain for spiritual peace. The wayward epicurean will turn almost into Hamlet and will have time to survive the chilling breath of Lear's tragedy...

Yes, grains lurk in the chronicles and the bright shoots of the later creations of the poet often turn green. The fifth act of Hamlet rises before my eyes whenever the circle of dramatic events is completed and the Duke of York, together with Richard II and Richard III, unanimously recognize the truth won Danish prince so many trials and disappointments: “There is a force that leads us to the goal, no matter which path we choose” ...

This is not fatalism, but faith in an unchanging world order, where the human will is just as valid a link as external life, such as, for example, natural phenomena. The consequences corresponding to its moral content follow just as naturally and irresistibly from it. The influence of such a worldview on dramatic creativity is obvious. The poet will not resort to miracles and exceptional accidents for the sake of ending the play, but he will not back down even before the most difficult outcome of the tragedy, he will not allow compassion and sensitivity to interfere in deciding the fate of the virtuous and innocent, since the logic of life and events requires sacrifice. This logic, we know, removes from the scene of reality not only the criminals, but also the weak, unable to oppose their own forces to external forces and remain at the height of their vocation in the whirlpool of hostile currents - and we will see not only the execution of Claudius, Edmund, Macbeth, but also the death of Ophelia, Desdemona, Cordelia, Juliet...

The crowning achievement of early Shakespearean chronicles is Richard III. The personality and history of the protagonist is extremely important to us. The poet for the first time presented the psychology of the villain, infinitely criminal and gloomy. Subsequently, it will be repeated in the characters of Edmund and Iago. At first glance, these figures may give a cruelly melodramatic impression. They are ready-made villains on the stage and go to their goals, mercilessly eliminating everything on the way, using any means, like born natural criminals. In fact, they have their own psychological history, their own stages of gradual and logical development. Shakespeare first showed this on the fate of Richard.

The Duke of Gloucester is extraordinarily intelligent, gifted, courageous and energetic - all qualities that elevate a person to heights. But at the same time, he is an exceptional freak, stigmatized by nature from the moment of birth. Deformity singled him out from the human environment, turned him first into an outcast, then into an embittered renegade, and finally into a natural enemy of all the lucky ones. And Richard's enmity will be all the more insistent, the more fortunate these lucky ones are below him in mind and talents; their privileged position is a blood insult to his vanity and claims based on a deep consciousness of his superiority. Richard himself accurately explains his position among relatives and the rest of mankind; does not forget to emphasize his lonely suffering in peacetime, when others enjoy life and love. Once "false nature" separated him from the rest of the world by an impassable abyss and embodied in him a clear horror for people, he "curses idle fun" and "throws himself into villainous deeds." This is a completely understandable impulse of offended pride and a poisoned existence for no one knows why. And Richard will steadily and calculatedly take revenge and feed his selfishness and malice. In addition to willpower and complete indifference to good and evil, the mind will tell him the most reliable means to catch the weak and unreasonable - hypocrisy. This is a common feature of all Shakespeare's villains: a serpent's heart in the shell of a dove. The combination of tremendous restraint, cold calculation with artificial openness, sincerity and even lyricism of feelings works wonders. And each new victory only aggravates the hero's contempt for his victims - past and future - and strengthens the highest idea of ​​\u200b\u200bhis own strengths. The villain becomes a fatalist on the basis of the same selfishness, that is, he begins to consider himself an instrument of supreme power and attributes his atrocities to fate: "The unfortunate star ruined them," says Richard about two young princes who were ruined by him. Edmund, who identifies himself with nature, and Iago, who does not distinguish his will from world power, will look at their enterprises in the same way.

All three heroes act on a majestic tragic stage, and, naturally, the scope of their activity is striking in its breadth and power. But the essence of psychology does not become less vital and real because of this. Forced apostasy and mortified self-esteem in strong natures create a heavy residue of unbearable bitterness and hidden anger, crying out for satisfaction. And in such epochs of moral and social turmoil, in which Richard lives, they lead directly to violence and crime.

It is clear what depth of psychological ideas the poet reached by studying native history. The most apparently exceptional phenomena in the field of the human spirit and external life are invariably built on the foundations of consistent development, and the greatest dramas, along with ordinary facts, represent links in one and the same world order.

To the third period of Shakespeare's work (1608-1612) belong only three plays - "Cymbeline", "The Winter's Tale" and "The Tempest".

In the very form of Shakespeare's dramatic work, a noticeable change takes place during this period. There are features of allegorical fantasy, conditional decorative theatricality. This is explained to a certain extent by external events: at the Blackfriars Theatre, the role of the “parterre” was reduced to almost zero, and the court spectator became the legislator of the stage.

But if the form changed, Shakespeare's humanistic theme remained untouched and even received further development. Shakespeare finds a way out of the tragic circle. This way out is faith in the future of mankind. The healer of all disasters in the "Winter's Tale" is the allegorical figure of Time. The statue of the slandered Hermione comes to life. The Tempest ends with Prospero's prophecy, promising travelers a calm sea and a favorable wind. Shakespeare's belief in the final triumph of those humanistic ideals that collided in a tragic conflict with the surrounding reality makes us call the last stage of his work not a period of cold and abstract fantasy, but a romantic period of uncooled and continued struggle in other forms.

In "Cymbeline" (Cymbeline), which opens the third and last period of Shakespeare's work, the features of the greatest heroines of Shakespeare's tragedies are resurrected in the image of Imogen. We recognize in her both Desdemona and partly Juliet. Like Desdemona, she can be called a "beautiful warrior", fearlessly going "to storm her fate." She does not give up in the face of grief. Her inner nobility finally overcomes evil fate, a theme to which Shakespeare returned in The Winter's Tale. Dark images of the treacherous queen and the dull-witted, brutish Clotin anticipate the witch Sycorax and Caliban from The Tempest. The narcissistic dandy Iachimo, with his vile slander, partly resembles Iago, just as the simple-hearted Postumus with his gullibility resembles Othello. Guiderius and Arviragus, who grew up among the wild rocks and defeated the Roman army consisting of noble patricians, are close to the heroes of folk legends.

Shakespeare scholars have repeatedly expressed the opinion that Shakespeare's last two plays - "The Winter's Tale" and "The Tempest" - are marked by a touch of disappointment, a rejection of life and a retreat into fantasy. However, such a characterization in any case does not concern the inner essence of these works. True, there is more abstract allegorism in them than in the former ones. They have more ceremonial festivity. Behind this magnificent appearance, however, is hidden the same passionate dream of the great humanist.

The plot of "Winter's Tale" (A Winter "s Tale) is borrowed from a novel by Robert Greene. The action takes place in a fantasy country. In the same way, the "Storm" is played out on some wild island in the sea: in the "romantic Nowhere", as correctly identified one commentator.

The title "Winter's Tale" recalls those conversations by the blazing fireplace, which in Shakespearean England liked to while away long winter evenings. "A sad tale suits winter," Mamily says. Hermione is the victim of reckless jealousy. But then the allegorical figure of Time appears on the scene. As commentators point out, the release of Time divides the play into two parts: the first is full of tragic events, the second is music and lyricism. The hour will come - such is the leitmotif of The Winter Tale - and the dream will turn into reality. The revival of the statue of Hermione is the pinnacle of this joyful tragedy, a stage moment that has more than once made a stunning impression on the audience.

Leontes, this self-willed spoiled aristocrat, begins to be jealous for no reason: next to him there is neither Iago nor even Yahimo. The reason for his jealousy is the despotism that the flattery of those around him brought up in him. Leont's further path is liberation from selfish passions. At the end of the tragedy, he bows before Hermione, the bearer of Shakespeare's humanistic ideals. Along with the theme of Hermione and Leontes, the theme of Florizel and Perdita is the main content of the play. This is the theme of the triumph of the young generation, which boldly goes to happiness; he is not threatened by internal conflicts that have darkened the life of the older generation. At the same time, the love of the shepherdess Perdita and Prince Florizel speaks of the equality of people legalized by nature itself. "The same sun that illuminates the palace does not hide its face from our hut," says Perdita.

The prophecy of man's victory over nature is the main theme of The Tempest, Shakespeare's utopia. "The Tempest" in an abstract-allegorical form, outwardly resembling an elegant "mask", as it were, sums up the main humanistic theme of Shakespeare's work and in this respect is one of the most remarkable works of the great playwright. Prospero (to prosper - prosper, flourish) personifies a prosperous humanity, thanks to whose wisdom young generation, Miranda and Ferdinand, the path to happiness is open, while Romeo and Juliet paid with their lives for one attempt to enter it. In the form of the four-legged Caliban, Prospero defeats the dark, chaotic forces of nature, and in the person of the spirit of the elements Ariel, with the power of his knowledge, he forces those forces of nature that are useful to man to serve him. To conquer nature means to know destiny. And Prospero freely reads in the book of the future.

"The Tempest" is a hymn to humanity and the happiness that awaits it. "How beautiful humanity is!" exclaims Miranda. new world in which such people live!" About the abundant fruits of the earth, about the barns full of harvest, about the fat vineyards, about the disappearance of lack and need, Ceres sings.

If for the early period of Shakespeare's work the sunny colors of comedies are especially typical; if then great playwright is experiencing formidable conflicts of tragedies, then "The Tempest" takes us to a bright shore. What, however, is this enlightenment? Is it in "reconciliation" with life, in "accepting evil as a fact," as Shakespeare scholars often interpreted? But Prospero does not reconcile with Caliban: he defeats him and forces him to serve him. The light beginning in man wins over the animal beginning. In withdrawal from life? But Prospero does not stay on the island, he returns to the people. However, this is no longer the former Prospero. This is a person who has gone through the "storm" and is wise by experience. In "The Tempest" Shakespeare does not return to the "original harmony", but overcomes the tragic feeling of life's contradictions by the power of faith in the future fate of mankind and the triumph of the younger generation.

Last play Shakespeare ends with Prospero's prediction of calm seas and favorable winds. So Shakespeare's work ends with a joyful prediction about the future destinies of mankind.

Creativity of the great English playwright W. Shakespeare is usually divided into three or four periods (some researchers consider the period 1590-1600 as one, others divide it into two: 1590-1594, 1595-1600).

· During the first period (1590–1600) Shakespeare was formed as a playwright, a set of ideas was formed that would be affected by him throughout his creative activity, and the foundations of his style were laid. In the works of this period, the influence of his talented contemporaries, first of all, T. Kid and K. Marlo, is still felt. Most of them are written in the genre of historical chronicle and comedy. The early tragedy "Titus Andronicus" to a large extent follows the aesthetics of the so-called "bloody tragedy", while "Romeo and Juliet" already testifies to the maturity of the playwright's talent. At the same time, in its attitude, this tragedy differs significantly from later works of this genre, affirming the greatness of love as a force that can transform the world. Despite the death of the heroes, it is imbued with tragic optimism.

The heroes of most of the works of this period are young and charming, and the plays themselves are full of optimism and faith in man; they sing of humanistic values.

Historical chronicles can be called an English saga, revealing the turbulent events of the country's history over several centuries - from the era of King John to the time immediately preceding the era of Shakespeare. Although he does not always follow historical facts(for example, in "Richard III"), the playwright manages to create the exact atmosphere of the time, show the alignment of forces and their confrontation that determined the history of the country, and create a broad social background. As Shakespeare's talent matures, the psychological depth of the characters, their complexity and inconsistency increase, which manifested itself with great force in the image of Richard Gloucester, who became Richard III. At the same time, the search for the ideal monarch is underway, and he appears in the image of Henry V in the play of the same name, who does everything so that England finally becomes a single state that overcomes feudal fragmentation and civil strife that are detrimental to the country (“Richard II”, “King John”) .

The World of Shakespeare's Comedies in the 1590s harmonious and cheerful. We are present at the celebration of life, which is presented as a bright masquerade. A lot of funny adventures happen with the heroes, sometimes they even get into difficult situations, but as a result, everything always ends well. This is a world of good and kind people sparkling with humor. generous people who know how to enjoy life, despite its contradictions. Good must win.

1590–1594 – early chronicles: “Henry VI”, part 2 (1590), “Henry VI”, part 3 (1591), “Henry VI”, part 1 (1592), “Richard III” (1593); early comedies: "Comedy of Errors" (1592), "The Taming of the Shrew" (1593); early tragedy Titus Andronicus (1594).

1595–1600 - chronicles: "Richard II" (1595), "King John" (1596), "Henry IV", part 1 (1597), "Henry IV", part 2 (1598), "Henry V" (1598) ; comedies: Two Veronians (1594), Love's Labour's Lost (1594), A Midsummer Night's Dream (1596), The Merchant of Venice (1596), Much Ado About Nothing (1598), The Merry Wives of Windsor "(1598), "As You Like It" (1599), "Twelfth Night" (1600); tragedies: "Romeo and Juliet" (1595), "Julius Caesar" (1599).

· The second period (1600–1609) in Shakespeare's work is painted in tragic tones. A turning point in Shakespeare's worldview is already outlined in the comedy "As You Like It" and the tragedy "Julius Caesar", dating back to 1599. In English society, symptoms of a crisis are brewing, expressed in the uprising of the Earl of Essex, its bloody suppression, peasant riots and exacerbation of class contradictions, which in just a few decades will lead to the English bourgeois revolution. Among the rebels was the Earl of Southampton, to whom, according to many researchers, Shakespeare's sonnets, as well as the poems Venus and Adonis (1593) and Lucretia (1594) are dedicated. All this could not pass by Shakespeare. Four great tragedies come out one after another: Hamlet (1601), Othello (1604), King Lear (1605), Macbeth (1606), testifying to a turning point in the worldview of the great playwright. The hopes for the creation of a harmonious world, which were cherished by the humanists, were dispelled, and this world itself turned out to be a utopia. As Hamlet, whom critics call a “reflective hero”, bitterly states, “the connection of times has broken up” (in another translation - “the century will be dislocated”), and a tragic fate awaits those who try to connect the broken links. The death of heroes is inevitable, as it is the price to be paid for the possibility of change in a rotten society. This is the atoning sacrifice that must be made for the sake of the future. The great translator of "Hamlet" into Russian B.L. Pasternak wrote that "Hamlet" is "a drama of a high lot, a commanded feat, an entrusted destiny." It is hardly coincidental that the first poem that opens the poems of Yuri Zhivago in the famous novel by B.L. Pasternak, was Hamlet.

The hum is quiet. I went out to the stage.

Leaning against the doorframe,

What will happen in my lifetime.

The twilight of the night is directed at me

A thousand binoculars on an axis.

If possible, Abba Father,

Pass this cup.

I love your stubborn intention

And I agree to play this role.

But now there's another drama going on

And this time, fire me.

But the schedule of actions is thought out,

And the end of the road is inevitable.

I am alone, everything is drowning in hypocrisy.

To live life is not a field to cross.

The "Roman" plays Coriolanus and Antony and Cleopatra are also full of tragedy. Even the comedies written during this period have a tragic connotation and no longer carry that cheerful charge that marked the comedies of the 1590s. No wonder they are called "dark" or "drug" comedies. The sonnets that appeared in a pirated edition in 1609 adjoin the same period. They represent the pinnacle of English poetry, both in depth philosophical reflection reality as well as artistic power. Some of them resonate both thematically and stylistically with the "great" tragedies and are also colored by a tragic worldview (compare Hamlet's monologue "To be or not to be" and sonnet 66, sonnet 127 reminds of "Othello"). All 154 sonnets form two sonnet cycles that are not equal in length, addressed to a friend and a “dark lady”, united by a lyrical hero who amazes with the richness of his inner peace and depth of feeling.

1601–1608 - tragedies: "Hamlet" (1601), "Othello" (1604), "King Lear" (1605), "Macbeth"; ancient tragedies: Antony and Cleopatra (1606), Coriolanus (1607), Timon of Athens (1608); comedies: "Troilus and Cressida" (1602), "The end is the crown of business" (1603), "Measure for measure" (1604).

· The third period (1609–1612) is the shortest period in Shakespeare's work: it takes only four years. In 1613 the playwright returned to Stratford-upon-Avon and ceased his creative activity. At this time, only four plays come out from under his pen. In co-authorship (probably with J. Fletcher), the historical chronicle "Henry VIII" was written, which does not belong to the number of significant works of Shakespeare. Later plays are written in the genre of romantic tragicomedy, in which fabulous and fantastic elements appear, which is especially characteristic of The Tempest, in which clear baroque features are manifested. The author accepts the tragedy of life, in which the dark and the light are in constant struggle, but good ultimately triumphs over evil.

According to Shakespeare researcher Prof. A. Aniksta, “Shakespeare brought important new artistic principles, which before him did not exist in art at all. The characters of the heroes in the ancient drama had only one important feature. Shakespeare created heroes and heroines endowed with the features of a spiritually rich living personality. At the same time, he showed the characters of his heroes in development. These artistic innovations have enriched not only art, but also the understanding of human nature.

2.1. Answer the questions.

What are the stages of Shakespeare's work? Which stage was the most fruitful from a quantitative point of view? Which stage was the most philosophically rich? What is the reason for the changes in the playwright's attitude at the turn of the century? How does it end creative activity Shakespeare? How can one explain the extraordinary popularity of Shakespeare in the Elizabethan era?

What is Shakespeare's contribution to the development of world theater? How would you explain Shakespeare's formula "The whole world is a theater, and the people in it are actors"? What laws apply in the theatre? Are they different from the laws in force in the world? How do Shakespeare's works differ from the texts from which he builds? What explains the synthetic nature of the work of the great playwright?

What is the main theme in Shakespeare's historical chronicles? What is the main conflict of the chronicles? How is history dramatized by Shakespeare? Is historical accuracy essential for a playwright? Who personifies the humanistic ideal of the ruler in Shakespeare's chronicles? How can one explain Shakespeare's appeal to themes from ancient Greek and Roman history?

What is unique about Shakespeare's comedies? Is there a difference in attitude in the comedies of the first and second periods of Shakespeare's work?

What is the source of tragic suffering in Shakespeare's tragedies? Who is the ideal person for Shakespeare (“the one whose blood and mind are so gratifyingly merged” - Hamlet)? Is such a person even possible? What is the reason for the change in the personality of the tragic hero? How does the character of the action change in Shakespeare's tragedies of the second period in comparison with the previous stage (for example, with the tragedy "Romeo and Juliet")? What role do moral categories play in the development of the action and characters of the heroes of tragedies?

What is the difference between Shakespeare's works of the last period? What exit does Shakespeare find from the tragic circle of the previous period? Why is this period called romantic in the work of the playwright? What is the reason for the appearance of such a powerful fantastic layer in the plays of this period? What is the main theme of "The Tempest"?

How do you explain the emergence of the so-called "Shakespearean question"? What evidence of contemporaries do we have about Shakespeare's work?

37. Shakespeare question and biography of Shakespeare. Periodization of creativity.

And the result, and the pinnacle of the development of the theater. The philosophical basis is Renaissance humanism. Since the whole revival fit into a person's life, he experiences both optimism and crisis. For the first time he raises the question "What is bourgeois morality?".

Shakespeare did not solve this problem. Its end is connected with utopia.

The personality of Shakespeare is legendary. Shakespeare's question - was he, did he write.

Born in Stratford-on-Avon, married. Mass biographies of Shakespeare, but nothing significant, we know more about his father. Father John kept a glove factory, but was not a nobleman. Mother is an impoverished noblewoman. There is no regular education, a grammar school in Stratford.

Shakespeare's information about antiquity is very fragmentary.

Marries Anna Hathaway, 8 years older, lived for three years, children, Shakespeare disappears. 1587-1588 approximately. 1592 - information about him, he is already a famous playwright. The share of Shakespeare's income in theater troupes is known. First professional playwright.

The state attitude to the theater was very dismissive. They could move only if they obeyed. "Servants of the Lord Chamberlain".

The quality of plays prior to Shakespeare was low, except for "university minds". Either the rich wrote and paid for the production, or the acting troupes themselves. Low quality.

Shakespeare was an immediate success. In 1592 articles for and against him. Green "For a penny of a mind bought for a million remorse", "Upstart, crow, adorned with our feathers, the heart of a tiger in the shell of an actor."

The history of Hamlet was developed by the CU, but of very low quality. The ability to use the material of others. He wrote plays, counting on a certain audience.

After the emergence of the first theater, a decree of the Puritans arose, who believed that theaters had no right to be located within the city. London-Thames border. There are 30 wooden theaters in London, at first there were no floors and roofs. The theater was based on different figures: a circle, a square, a hexagon. The stage is completely open to the viewer. Trapeze. People were sitting on the floor. There was a jester on the front stage - he distracted the audience. They are smart. The costumes did not match the era. Tragedy - the black flag was raised, the blue comedy. The troupe is 8-12 people, rarely 14. There were no actresses. 1667 women appeared on the scene. The first play is Othello. Shakespeare wrote for this particular scene. He also took into account the fact that there was no stable text of the play, there is no copyright, we know many plays from pirated records. The first edition of Shakespeare's plays appeared 14 years after his death. 36 plays, not all set exactly.

Several theories of the Shakespearean question. One of them connects Shakespeare with Christopher Marlowe. He was killed shortly before the appearance of Shakespeare. He also has tragedies and historical chronicles. The type of hero is a titanic personality, amazing abilities, abilities, etc. He does not know where to apply all this, there are no criteria for good and evil.

"Tamerlane the Great". A simple shepherd, he achieved everything himself. Shakespeare will find criteria for goodness and activity. KM was a scammer, then he stopped. Fight in the tavern. The legend of his hiding place.

Francis Bacon, theory, still lives on. It is believed that FB encrypted his biography in Shakespeare's plays. The main cipher is "Storm".

Shakespeare is uneducated, unlike Bacon. In 1613 the Globe burned down.

Shakespeare's handwriting is a testament drawn up by a very petty person. The story continues into the 19th century,

Delia Bacon in America, claims her ancestor's rights to all of Shakespeare's works. DB is crazy. 1888 - Donelly's book, which tells in a fascinating way that he found the key to Shakespeare's plays. At first, everyone reacted with interest, and then they laughed at the pamphlet.

Another Shakespeare candidate. Galilov "A Game about William Shakespeare" - Lord Rutland. His wife, Mary Rutland, is also in the circle. Shakespeare was, as it were, on a salary, there are documents. In Hamlet, reminiscences, names, etc. Shakespeare's sonnets too. After the death of the Rutlands, Shakespeare stops writing and leaves for Stratford. It is believed that there is one lifetime portrait of Shakespeare. Galilov believes that he is a figment of the imagination, because he is unrealistic. Before us is a mask with empty eye sockets, half of the camisole is given from the back.

3 periods: 1. 1590 - 1600. 2. 1600 - 1608. 3. 1609-1613.

1. Optimistic, since it coincides with the period of the early revival, and the early revival is associated with humanism. Everything leads to good, humanists believe in the triumph of harmony. Historical chronicles and comedies predominate.

At the turn of the 1-2 period, the only tragedy "Romeo and Juliet" is created. This tragedy is not entirely grim. The setting is sunny, bright atmosphere of universal joy. What happened to the heroes happened by accident - the murder of Mercutio, Romeo kills Tybalt. When R and D are secretly married, the messenger accidentally arrives late. Shakespeare shows how a series of accidents leads to the death of heroes. The main thing is that the world's evil does not come into the souls of the heroes, they die clean. Shakespeare means to say that they died as the last victims of the Middle Ages.

Historical chronicles: "Henry VI", "Richard III", "King John", "Henry IV", Henry V". The chronicles are very voluminous. Although the darkest events take place in them, the basis is optimistic. A triumph over the Middle Ages.

Shakespeare is a supporter of the monarchy and in the chronicles he tries to create the image of a strong, intelligent and moral monarch. Historians and Shakespeare paid attention to personality in history.

In "Henry IV" Heinrich is fair, honest, but comes to power by throwing off the monarch, in a bloody way. But there is no peace in the state. He thinks about it and comes to the conclusion that it is because he came to power dishonestly. Heinrich hopes that everything will be fine with his sons. In "Richard III", when Richard is worried, he needs the support of the people, but the people are silent. A positive image appears in the chronicles.

The image that defines the positive program of the chronicles is time. The off-stage image of time is present in all chronicles. Shakespeare was the first to speak of the connection between past, present and future. Time will put everything in its place.

Life, the history of England does not provide an opportunity to create the image of an ideal monarch. The audience sympathizes with Richard III because he is an active hero. In creating Richard III, Shakespeare approached the notion of the tragic and the contemplation of fortune by a new hero. Richard III does evil. Scholars debate whether Shakespeare created the chronicles according to a single plan or spontaneously. When Shakespeare created the first chronicles, there was no plan, but later he created consciously. All chronicles can be considered as a multi-act play. With the death of one hero, the plot is not exhausted, but moves on to the next play. Henry V is an ideal monarch, it is impossible to watch and read, because he is fictional. Henry IV is interesting to watch. Comedy. Shakespeare is ahead of his time. Shakespeare's comedies are a special thing, they are created on other principles. This

comedy humor, joy. There is no satirical, accusatory beginning. They are not household. The background on which the action is played out is quite arbitrary.

The action takes place in Italy. For Londoners, this was a special world of the sun, carnival. No one makes fun of anyone, only eavesdrop.

Shakespeare's comedies are stand-up comedies. The effect of the comic is created by hypertrophy of character or feelings.

"Much ado about nothing". The skirmish between Benedict and Beatrice is humorous. Jealousy is a conflict.

"12th night" Hypertrophy of feelings. The Countess mourns her marriage, but death crosses all boundaries. Shakespeare first had the idea that the comic and the tragic come from the same point, two sides of the same coin. 12th night. The ambition of the butler is exaggerated. Macbeth is a tragedy of ambition, his human royalty is not crowned with a royal crown. All events can turn into a comic and tragic side.

Almost all comedies were written in the first period: "The Taming of the Shrew", "Two Verona", "A Midsummer Night's Dream", "The Merchant of Venice", "12th Night". The following comedies are inferior to these.

Comedies raise the same important issues as tragedies and chronicles.

"The Merchant of Venice". Goodies that triumph are not so positive and vice versa. The main conflict is around money.

2. Associated with the development of the tragedy genre. Shakespeare creates mostly only tragedies. Shakespeare very soon realizes that bourgeois morality is no better than the medieval one.

Shakespeare wrestles with the problem of what evil is. The tragic is understood idealistically. Shakespeare is horrified by the fact that tragedy springs from the same source as comedy. Shakespeare begins to observe how the same quality leads to good and bad.

Hamlet is a tragedy of the mind. Here evil has not yet completely penetrated Hamlet's soul. Hamletism is a soul-corroding inaction associated with reflection.

Hamlet is a Renaissance humanist.

"Othello" - written on the plot of the Italian novel. At the heart of the conflict is the confrontation between two Renaissance personalities. Humanist - Othello, Renaissance idealist - Iago. Othello lives for others. He is not jealous, but very trusting. Iago plays on this credulity. Othello killing Desdemona kills the world's evil in a beautiful guise. Tragedies do not end hopelessly.