The emergence of Russian literature. Old Russian literature. Chronology of ancient Russian literature

Literature arose in Rus' simultaneously with the adoption of Christianity, but both the Christianization of the country and the appearance of writing were determined primarily by state needs: writing was necessary in all spheres of state and public life, in legal practice. The appearance of writing created a field of activity for translators and scribes, and most importantly, an opportunity for the emergence of their own original literature, both for the church (teachings, solemn words, lives), and purely secular (chronicles).

But the attitude towards nigs, as already mentioned, has developed a special one. In the article of 988 of the most ancient Russian chronicle - "The Tale of Bygone Years", immediately after the message about the adoption of Christianity, it is said that the Kievan prince Vladimir, "sending, began to take children from deliberate children [from noble people], and gave them to start learning from books." In an article of 1037, characterizing the activities of Vladimir’s son, Prince Yaroslav, the chronicler noted that he was “developing books, and reading them [reading them], often at night and in the day. translating from the Greek]. Further, the chronicler cites praise for the books: “Great is the crawl from the teachings of the book: with books we show and teach us the way to repentance [books instruct and teach us repentance], we gain wisdom and restraint from the words of the book. the essence of the origin [sources] of wisdom; for books there is an unsearchable depth", and the first article from one of the oldest ancient Russian collections - "Izbornik 1076" states that, just as a ship cannot be built without nails, so one cannot become a righteous man, not reading books, advice is given to read slowly and thoughtfully: do not try to quickly read to the end of the chapter, but think about what you have read, re-read the same chapter three times until you comprehend its meaning.

In the X and the first half of the XI century. in Rus', a huge amount of work was done: a huge number of books were copied from Bulgarian originals or translated from Greek, and already during the first two centuries of the existence of writing, ancient Russian scribes became acquainted with all the main genres and main monuments of Byzantine literature.

In the process of introducing Russia to world literature, two characteristic features are distinguished: firstly, most literary works reached Russian scribes through intermediary literature: books already translated into Old Bulgarian were then translated into Old Russian: books of scripture, liturgical books, works of church writers, historical works (chronicles), natural sciences ("Physiologist", "Shestodnev"), as well as - albeit to a lesser extent - monuments of historical narrative, for example, the novel about Alexander the Great and the story about the conquest of Jerusalem by the Roman emperor Titus - that is, mainly translations from the Greek language, works of early Christian literature by authors of the III-VII centuries. It should be noted that any ancient Slavic literature cannot be clearly divided into original and translated literature: translated literature was an organic part of national literatures at an early stage of their development.

The second feature of the development of literature X-XII centuries. - the influence of ancient Bulgarian literature on Russian and Serbian.

The fact that Ancient Rus' began to read someone else's primary rather than create its own does not mean that Russian culture is secondary: we are talking just one area artistic creativity and about one area of the art of the word, namely the creation of written texts: among them on early stages there were practically only highly specialized texts - works on theology, ethics, history, and works literary art remained unrecorded, folklore.

Excites today all those who are interested in the history and culture of our country. We will try to give an exhaustive answer to it.

It is customary to call Old Russian literature monuments of the bookishness of Kievan Rus, which appeared at the stage of the creation of the state of the Eastern Slavs, called Kievan Rus. The Old Russian period in the history of Russian literature, according to some literary critics, ends in 1237 (during the devastating Tatar invasion), according to other literary critics, it continues for about 400 years and gradually ends in the era of the revival of the Muscovite state after the Time of Troubles.

However, the first version is more preferable, which partly explains to us when and why Old Russian literature arose.

In any case, this fact suggests that our ancestors approached a stage of social development when they were no longer satisfied with folklore works and new genres were required - hagiographic literature, teachings, selections and "words".

When did ancient Russian literature arise: history and main factors of emergence

There is no exact date for the writing of the first Old Russian work in history, however, the beginning of literacy in Rus' is traditionally associated with two events. The first is the appearance in our country of Orthodox monks - Methodius and Cyril, who created the Glagolitic alphabet, and later put their efforts into creating the Cyrillic alphabet. This made it possible to translate the liturgical and Christian texts of the Byzantine Empire into Old Church Slavonic.

The second key event was the actual Christianization of Rus', which allowed our state to closely communicate with the Greeks - the bearers of the then wisdom and knowledge.

It should be noted that it is impossible to answer the question of the year in which Old Russian literature arose, also because a huge number of monuments of Old Russian literature were lost due to the devastating Horde yoke, most of them burned down in numerous fires that were brought to our country by bloodthirsty nomads. .

The most famous monuments of book literature of Ancient Rus'

When answering the question of when ancient Russian literature arose, we must not forget that the works of this period represent a fairly high level of literary skill. One famous "Word" about the campaign of Prince Igor against the Polovtsy is worth something.

Despite the devastating historical circumstances, the following monuments have survived to this day.

We briefly list the key ones:

Ostromir gospel.
Numerous educational collections.
Collections of lives (for example, collections of lives of the first Russian saints from the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra).
"Word about law and grace" by Illarion.
Life of Boris and Gleb.
Reading about princes Boris and Gleb.
"The Tale of Bygone Years".
"Instruction of Prince Vladimir, Nicknamed Monomakh".
"The Tale of Igor's Campaign".
"The Legend of the Death of the Russian Land".

Chronology of ancient Russian literature

A connoisseur of the ancient Russian written tradition, Academician D.S. Likhachev and his colleagues assumed that the answer to the question of when ancient Russian literature arose should be sought in the first monuments of Russian literature.

According to these chronicle sources, translated works from the Greek language first appeared in our country in the 10th century. At the same time, folklore texts of legends about the exploits of Svyatoslav Igorevich, as well as epics about Prince Vladimir, were created at the same time.

In the 11th century, thanks to the activities of Metropolitan Hilarion, literary works were written. For example, this is the already mentioned “Sermon on Law and Grace”, a description of the adoption of Christianity by the Russian people, and others. In the same century, the texts of the first izborniks were created, as well as the first texts of the lives of those who died as a result of princely strife and later canonized saints.

In the 12th century, original author's works were written that told about the life of Theodosius, hegumen of the Caves, the life of other saints of the Russian land. At the same time, the text of the so-called Galician Gospel was created, parables and “words” were written by a talented Russian orator. The creation of the text "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" dates back to the same century. At the same time, a large number of translated works were published, which came from Byzantium and carry the foundations of both Christian and Hellenic wisdom.

Consequently, it is possible with all objectivity to answer the question of in what century Old Russian literature arose in the following way: it happened in the 10th century, along with the advent of Slavic writing and the creation of Kievan Rus as a single state.

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Subject No. 12 Literature Ancient Rus'

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………2

The emergence of Russian literature .............................................................. ...................................3

Genres of literature of Ancient Rus'………………………………………………………....7

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………..11

List of used literature………………………………………………..........12

Subject No. 13 Religious outlook. Materialism

Worldview……………………………………………………………………………….14

Religious worldview…………………………………………………………………....15

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………..17

Materialism

The concept of materialism………………………………………………………………………...17

The history of materialism………………………………………………………………………...18

Modern theories……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….23

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………..24

List of references .............................................................................. ...............................24

Internet resources……………………………………………………………………………..25

Test……………………………………………………………………………………………..26

Subject No. 12 Literature of Ancient Rus'

Introduction

The centuries-old literature of Ancient Rus' has its own classics, there are works that we can rightly call classical, which perfectly represent the literature of Ancient Rus' and are known all over the world. Every educated Russian person should know them.
Ancient Rus', in the traditional sense of the word, embracing the country and its history from the 10th to the 17th centuries, had a great culture. This culture, the direct predecessor of the new Russian culture of the 18th-20th centuries, nevertheless had some of its own phenomena, characteristic only of it.
Ancient Rus' is famous all over the world for its art and architecture. But it is remarkable not only for these "silent" arts, which allowed some Western scholars to call the culture of Ancient Rus' the culture of great silence. IN Lately the discovery of ancient Russian music begins to take place again, and more slowly - much more difficult to understand art - the art of the word, literature.
That is why for many foreign languages Hilarion's "The Tale of Law and Grace", "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", "Journey Beyond Three Seas" by Athanasius Nikitin, the Works of Ivan the Terrible, "The Life of Archpriest Avvakum" and many others have now been translated.
Getting acquainted with the literary monuments of Ancient Rus', modern man without much difficulty notice their differences from the works of literature of modern times: this is the lack of detailed characters of the characters, this is the stinginess of details in the description of the appearance of the heroes, their environment, landscape, this is the psychological lack of motivation of actions, and the “impersonality” of replicas that can be transferred to any hero of the work, since they do not reflect the individuality of the speaker, this is also the “insincerity” of monologues with an abundance of traditional “common places” - abstract reasoning on theological or moral topics, with exorbitant pathos or expression.
It would be easiest to explain all these features by the student character of ancient Russian literature, to see in them only the result of the fact that the writers of the Middle Ages had not yet mastered the “mechanism” plot construction, which in general terms is now known to every writer and every reader.
All this is true only to some extent. Literature is constantly evolving. Expanding and enriching the arsenal artistic techniques. Each writer in his work relies on the experience and achievements of his predecessors.

The emergence of Russian literature.

Literature arose in Rus' simultaneously with the adoption of Christianity. But the intensity of its development indisputably indicates that both the Christianization of the country and the appearance of writing were determined primarily by state needs. Having adopted Christianity, Ancient Rus' simultaneously received both writing and literature.
Old Russian scribes were faced with the most difficult task: it was necessary to provide the churches and monasteries created in Russia with the books necessary for worship in the shortest possible time, it was necessary to acquaint newly converted Christians with Christian dogma, with the foundations of Christian morality, with Christian historiography in the broadest sense of the word: and with the history of the universe, peoples and states, and with the history of the church, and, finally, with the history of the life of Christian ascetics.
As a result, during the first two centuries of the existence of their written language, ancient Russian scribes became acquainted with all the main genres and main monuments of Byzantine literature.
It was necessary to talk about how - from a Christian point of view - the world is arranged, to explain the meaning of expediently and wisely "arranged by God" nature. In a word, it was necessary to immediately create literature devoted to the most complex worldview issues. Books brought from Bulgaria could not meet all these versatile needs of the young Christian state, and, consequently, it was necessary to translate, rewrite, and multiply works of Christian literature. All the energy, all the forces, all the time of the Old Russian scribes at first were absorbed in the fulfillment of these primary tasks.
The writing process was lengthy, the writing material (parchment) was expensive, and this not only made each book folio laborious, but also gave it a special halo of value and significance. Literature was perceived as something very important, serious, intended to serve the highest spiritual needs.
Writing was necessary in all spheres of state and public life, in inter-princely and international relations, in legal practice. The appearance of writing stimulated the activities of translators and scribes, and most importantly, it created opportunities for the emergence of original literature, both serving the needs and requirements of the church (teachings, solemn words, lives), and purely secular (chronicles). However, it is quite natural that in the minds of the ancient Russian people of that time, Christianization and the emergence of writing (literature) were considered as a single process.
In the article of 988 of the most ancient Russian chronicle - "The Tale of Bygone Years", immediately after the message about the adoption of Christianity, it is said that the Kiev prince Vladimir, "sent, began to take children from deliberate children [from noble people], and gave them for book learning" .
In an article of 1037, characterizing the activities of Vladimir’s son, Prince Yaroslav, the chronicler noted that he was “developing with books, and reading them [reading them], often in the night and in the day. And I gathered a lot of scribes and converted from Greek into Slovenian writing [translating from Greek]. And many books have been written off, and by learning to be faithful, people enjoy the teachings of the divine. Further, the chronicler cites a kind of praise for the books: “Great is the crawl from the teaching of the book: with books, we show and teach us the way of repentance [books instruct and teach us repentance], we gain wisdom and restraint from the words of the book. Behold the essence of the river, soldering the universe, behold the origin [sources] of wisdom; For books there is an inexcusable depth. These words of the chronicler echo the first article from one of the oldest ancient Russian collections - "Izbornik 1076"; it states that, just as a ship cannot be built without nails, so one cannot become a righteous man without reading books, advice is given to read slowly and thoughtfully: do not try to quickly read to the end of the chapter, but reflect on what has been read, re-read one word three times and the same chapter, until you comprehend its meaning.
Getting acquainted with ancient Russian manuscripts of the 11th-14th centuries, establishing the sources used by Russian writers - chroniclers, hagiographers (authors of lives), authors of solemn words or teachings, we are convinced that in the annals we do not have abstract declarations about the benefits of enlightenment; in the 10th and first half of the 11th century. in Rus', a huge amount of work was done: huge literature was copied from Bulgarian originals or translated from Greek.
Old Russian literature can be regarded as the literature of one theme and one plot. This plot is world history, and this topic is the meaning human life.
Not that all the works were devoted to world history (although there are a lot of these works): that's not the point! Each work, to some extent, finds its geographical place and its chronological milestone in the history of the world. All works can be put in one row one after another in the order of the events taking place: we always know to what historical time they are attributed by the authors.
Literature tells, or at least seeks to tell, not about the invented, but about the real. Therefore, the real - world history, real geographical space - connects all individual works.
Indeed, fiction Old Russian works masked by the truth. Open fiction is not allowed. All works are devoted to events that were, took place, or, although they did not exist, are seriously considered to have taken place. Old Russian literature up to the 17th century. does not know or almost does not know conventional characters. Names actors- historical: Boris and Gleb, Theodosius Pechersky, Alexander Nevsky, Dmitry Donskoy, Sergius of Radonezh, Stefan of Perm ... At the same time, ancient Russian literature tells mainly about those persons who played significant role V historical events: be it Alexander the Great or Abraham of Smolensk.
One of the most popular books of Ancient Rus' is "Shestodnev" by John Exarch of Bulgaria. This book tells about the world, arranging its story in the order of the biblical legend about the creation of the world in six days. On the first day, light was created; on the second, the visible sky and water; on the third, the sea, rivers, springs, and seeds; on the fourth, the sun, moon, and stars; on the fifth, fish, reptiles, and birds; on the sixth, animals and man. . Each of the days described is a hymn to creation, the world, its beauty and wisdom, consistency and diversity of the elements of the whole.
Just as we talk about the epic in folk art, we can also talk about the epic of ancient Russian literature. An epic is not a simple sum of epics and historical songs. Epics are plot-related. They paint us a whole epic era in the life of the Russian people. The era is fantastic, but at the same time historical. This era is the reign of Vladimir the Red Sun. The action of many plots is transferred here, which, obviously, existed before, and in some cases arose later. Another epic time is the time of independence of Novgorod. Historical songs depict us, if not a single era, then, in any case, a single course of events: the 16th and 17th centuries. par excellence.
Ancient Russian literature is also a cycle. A cycle many times superior to folklore. This is an epic that tells the history of the universe and the history of Rus'.
None of the works of Ancient Rus' - translated or original - stands apart. All of them complement each other in the picture of the world they create. Each story is a complete whole, and at the same time it is connected with others. This is just one of the chapters in the history of the world. Even such works as the translated story "Stephanit and Ikhnilat" (an old Russian version of the plot of "Kalila and Dimna") or "The Tale of Dracula" written on the basis of oral stories of an anecdotal nature are included in collections and are not found in separate lists. In separate manuscripts, they begin to appear only in the late tradition in the 17th and 18th centuries.
There is a continuous cycling going on. Even the notes of the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin about his "Journey beyond the three seas" were included in the chronicle. These notes become a historical composition - a story about the events of a trip to India. Such a fate is not uncommon for the literary works of Ancient Rus': over time, many of the stories begin to be perceived as historical, as documents or narratives about Russian history: whether it is the sermon of the abbot of the Vydubetsky monastery Moses, delivered by him about the construction of the monastery wall, or the life of a saint.
The works were built according to the "enfilade principle". Life was supplemented over the centuries with services to the saint, a description of his posthumous miracles. It could grow with additional stories about the saint. Several lives of the same saint could be combined into a new single work. The chronicle could be supplemented with new information. The end of the chronicle seemed to be pushed back all the time, continuing with additional entries about new events (the chronicle grew along with history). Separate annual articles of the chronicle could be supplemented with new information from other chronicles; they could include new works. Chronographs and historical sermons were also supplemented in this way. Collections of words and teachings proliferated. That is why in ancient Russian literature there are so many huge works that unite separate narratives into a common "epos" about the world and its history.
The circumstances of the emergence of ancient Russian literature, its place and functions in the life of society determined the system of its original genres, that is, those genres within which the development of original Russian literature began.
At first, according to the expressive definition of D.S. Likhachev, it was literature of “one theme and one plot. This plot is world history, and this topic is the meaning of human life. Indeed, all genres of ancient Russian literature were devoted to this theme and this plot, especially if we talk about the literature of the early Middle Ages.

2. Genres of literature of Ancient Rus'.

In order to understand the peculiarity and originality of original Russian literature, to appreciate the courage with which Russian scribes created works that “stand outside genre systems”, such as The Tale of Igor’s Campaign, Vladimir Monomakh’s Instruction, Daniil Zatochnik’s Prayer and the like , for all this it is necessary to get acquainted with at least some examples of individual genres of translated literature.
Chronicles.

Interest in the past of the Universe, the history of other countries, the fate of the great people of antiquity was satisfied by translations of Byzantine chronicles. These chronicles began a presentation of events from the creation of the world, retold the biblical story, cited individual episodes from the history of the countries of the East, told about the campaigns of Alexander the Great, and then about the history of the countries of the Middle East. Having brought the story to the last decades before the beginning of our era, the chroniclers went back and set forth ancient history Rome, starting from the legendary times of the founding of the city. The rest and, as a rule, most of the chronicles were occupied by the story of the Roman and Byzantine emperors. The chronicles ended with a description of events contemporary to their compilation.
Thus, the chroniclers created the impression of the continuity of the historical process, of a kind of “change of kingdoms”. Of the translations of Byzantine chronicles, the most famous in Rus' in the 11th century. received translations of the "Chronicles of George Amartol" and "Chronicles of John Malala". The first of them, together with a continuation made on Byzantine soil, brought the narrative to the middle of the tenth century, the second - to the time of Emperor Justinian (527-565).
Perhaps one of the defining features of the composition of the chronicles was their desire for an exhaustive completeness of the dynastic series. This feature is also characteristic of biblical books (where long lists of genealogies follow), and of medieval chronicles, and of the historical epic.
"Alexandria".

The novel about Alexander the Great, the so-called "Alexandria", was very popular in Ancient Rus'. This was not a historically accurate description of the life and deeds of the famous commander, but a typical Hellenistic adventure novel.
In "Alexandria" we also encounter action-packed (and also pseudo-historical) collisions. "Alexandria" is indispensable integral part all ancient Russian chronographs; from edition to edition, the adventure and fantasy theme intensifies in it, which once again indicates an interest in the plot-entertaining, and not the actual historical side of this work.
"The Life of Eustathius Placis".

In ancient Russian literature, imbued with the spirit of historicism, turned to worldview problems, there was no place for an open literary fiction(readers apparently trusted the miracles of "Alexandria" - after all, all this happened a long time ago and somewhere in unknown lands, at the end of the world!), A household story or a novel about privacy private person. Strange as it may seem at first glance, but to a certain extent the need for such plots was filled by such authoritative and closely related genres as the lives of saints, patericons or apocrypha.
Researchers have long noticed that the lengthy lives of Byzantine saints in some cases were very reminiscent of an ancient novel: sudden changes in the fate of heroes, imaginary death, recognition and meeting after many years of separation, attacks by pirates or predatory animals - all these traditional plot motifs of an adventure novel strangely coexisted in some lives with the idea of glorifying the ascetic or martyr for the Christian faith. A typical example of such a life is the "Life of Eustathius Plakida", translated back in Kievan Rus.
Apocrypha.

Apocrypha, legends about biblical characters that were not included in canonical (recognized by the church) biblical books, discussions on topics that worried medieval readers: about the struggle in the world of good and evil, about the ultimate fate of mankind, descriptions of heaven and hell or unknown lands "at the end of the world."
Most of the apocrypha are entertaining plot stories that struck the imagination of readers either with everyday details about the life of Christ, the apostles, prophets unknown to them, or with miracles and fantastic visions. The church tried to fight apocryphal literature. Special lists of banned books were compiled - indexes. However, in judgments about which works are unconditionally “renounced books”, that is, unacceptable for reading by orthodox Christians, and which are only apocryphal (literally apocryphal - secret, intimate, that is, designed for a reader experienced in theological matters), medieval censors did not there was unity.
The indices varied in composition; in collections, sometimes very authoritative, we also find apocryphal texts next to canonical biblical books and lives. Sometimes, however, even here they were overtaken by the hand of zealots of piety: in some collections, the pages with the text of the Apocrypha are torn out or their text is crossed out. Nevertheless, there were a lot of apocryphal works, and they continued to be copied throughout the centuries-old history of ancient Russian literature.
Patristics.

Patristics, that is, the writings of those Roman and Byzantine theologians of the 3rd-7th centuries who enjoyed special authority in the Christian world and were revered as "fathers of the church": John Chrysostom, Basil the Great, Gregory of Nazianzus, Athanasius of Alexandria and others.
Their works explained the tenets of the Christian religion, interpreted Holy Bible, Christian virtues were affirmed and vices were denounced, various ideological questions were raised. At the same time, works of both instructive and solemn eloquence had considerable aesthetic value.
The authors of the solemn words intended to be pronounced in the church during the divine service were perfectly able to create an atmosphere of festive ecstasy or reverence, which was supposed to embrace the faithful when remembering the glorified event of church history, they perfectly mastered the art of rhetoric, which Byzantine writers inherited from antiquity: not by chance, many of the Byzantine theologians studied with pagan rhetors.
In Rus', John Chrysostom (d. 407) was especially famous; from the words belonging to him or attributed to him, entire collections were compiled, bearing the names "Chrysostom" or "Chrystostruy".
The language of liturgical books is especially colorful and rich in paths. Let's give some examples. In service menaias (a collection of services in honor of the saints, arranged according to the days when they are venerated) of the 11th century. we read: “A bunch of thought vines has ripened, but it has been cast into the winepress of torment, you have poured out tenderness for us wine.” A literal translation of this phrase will destroy the artistic image, so we will only explain the essence of the metaphor.
The saint is compared to a mature bunch of vines, but it is emphasized that this is not a real, but a spiritual (“mental”) vine; the tormented saint is likened to grapes that are crushed in a “winepress” (pit, vat) in order to “exude” the juice for making wine, the torment of the saint “exudes” the “wine of tenderness” - a feeling of reverence and compassion for him.
A few more metaphorical images from the same service menaias of the 11th century: “From the depths of malice, the last tip of the height of virtue, like an eagle, flying high, gloriously ascended, praised Matthew!”; “Strained prayer bows and arrows and a fierce snake, a creeping snake, you killed thou, blessed, from that harm the holy herd was delivered”; “The towering sea, charming polytheism, gloriously passed through the storm of divine rule, a quiet haven for all being drowned.” “Prayer bows and arrows”, “a storm of polytheism”, which raises waves on the “charming [insidious, deceitful] sea” of vain life - all these are metaphors designed for a reader who has a developed sense of the word and sophisticated figurative thinking, who is excellently versed in traditional Christian symbolism.
And as can be judged from the original works of Russian authors - chroniclers, hagiographers, creators of teachings and solemn words, this high art was fully accepted by them and implemented in their work.
Speaking about the system of genres of ancient Russian literature, one more important circumstance should be noted: for a long time, until the 17th century, this literature did not allow literary fiction. Old Russian authors wrote and read only about what was in reality: about the history of the world, countries, peoples, about generals and kings of antiquity, about holy ascetics. Even transmitting outright miracles, they believed that it could be that there were fantastic creatures inhabiting unknown lands through which Alexander the Great passed with his troops, that in the darkness of caves and cells demons appeared to holy hermits, then tempting them in the form of harlots , then frightening in the guise of beasts and monsters.
Talking about historical events, ancient Russian authors could tell different, sometimes mutually exclusive versions: some say so, the chronicler or chronicler will say, and others say otherwise. But in their eyes, this was just the ignorance of informants, so to speak, a delusion from ignorance, however, the idea that this or that version could simply be invented, composed, and even more so composed for purely literary purposes - such an idea to older writers, apparently, seemed unbelievable. This non-recognition of literary fiction also, in turn, determined the system of genres, the range of subjects and topics to which a work of literature could be devoted. The fictional hero will come to Russian literature relatively late - not earlier than the 15th century, although even at that time he will still be disguised as a hero of a distant country or an ancient time for a long time.
Frank fiction was allowed only in one genre - the genre of the apologist, or parable. It was a miniature story, each of whose characters and the whole plot existed only to illustrate an idea visually. It was an allegory story, and that was its meaning.
In ancient Russian literature, which did not know fiction, historical in big or small, the world itself appeared as something eternal, universal, where the events and actions of people are determined by the very system of the universe, where the forces of good and evil are always fighting, a world whose history is well known ( after all, for each event mentioned in the annals, the exact date was indicated - the time elapsed from the “creation of the world”!) And even the future was predestined: prophecies about the end of the world, the “second coming” of Christ and the Last Judgment waiting for all the people of the earth.
This general ideological attitude could not but affect the desire to subordinate the very image of the world to certain principles and rules, to determine once and for all what should be depicted and how.
Old Russian literature, like other medieval Christian literature, is subject to a special literary and aesthetic regulation - the so-called literary etiquette.

Conclusion

So, the main range of works of monuments of ancient Russian literature are religious and edifying works, the lives of saints, liturgical hymns. Old Russian literature arose in the 11th century. One of its first monuments - "The Word of Law and Grace" of the Kyiv Metropolitan Hilarion - was created in the 30-40s. XI century. The 17th century is the last century of ancient Russian literature. Throughout it, the traditional ancient Russian literary canons are gradually destroyed, new genres, new ideas about man and the world are born.
Literature is also called the works of ancient Russian scribes, and the texts of the authors of the 18th century, and the works of Russian classics of the last century, and the works contemporary writers. Of course, there are obvious differences between the literature of the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries. But all Russian literature of the last three centuries is not at all like the monuments of ancient Russian verbal art. However, it is in comparison with them that she reveals much in common.
The cultural horizon of the world is constantly expanding. Now, in the 20th century, we understand and appreciate in the past not only classical antiquity. The Western European Middle Ages has firmly entered the cultural baggage of mankind, back in the 19th century. which seemed barbaric, "Gothic" (the original meaning of this word is precisely "barbarian"), Byzantine music and iconography, African sculpture, Hellenistic novel, Fayum portrait, Persian miniature, Inca art and much, much more. Humanity is freed from "Eurocentrism" and egocentric focus on the present.
Deep penetration into the cultures of the past and the cultures of other peoples brings times and countries closer. The unity of the world is becoming more and more tangible. The distances between cultures are shrinking, and there is less and less room for national enmity and stupid chauvinism. This is the greatest merit of the humanities and the arts themselves, a merit that will only be fully realized in the future.
One of the most pressing tasks is to introduce into the circle of reading and understanding of the modern reader the monuments of the art of the words of Ancient Rus'. The art of the word is in organic connection with the fine arts, with architecture, with music, and there can be no true understanding of one without an understanding of all other areas of the artistic creativity of Ancient Rus'.
In the great and peculiar culture of Ancient Rus', the art and literature, humanistic culture and material, wide international relations and a pronounced national identity.

List of used literature

1. Adrianov-Perets V.P. Man in the educational literature of Ancient Rus'. - TODRL. L., 1972, v. XXVII.

2. Kazan history: Monuments of literature of Ancient Rus'. Mid 16th century. - M., 1985.

3. Kozhinov V.V. History of Rus' and the Russian word. – M.: Algorithm, 1999.

5. Likhachev V. D., Likhachev D. S. Artistic heritage of Ancient Rus' and modernity. - L., 1971.

6. Likhachev D.S. Great heritage // Likhachev D.S. Selected works in three volumes. Volume 2. - L .: Khudozh. lit., 1987.

7. Likhachev D. S. Poetics of ancient Russian literature. 2nd ed. - L., 1971.

8. Likhachev D.S. The development of Russian literature of the X-XVII centuries. Epochs and styles. - L., 1973.

9. Likhachev D. S. Textology. On the material of Russian literature of the X-XVII centuries. - M.-L., 1962; Textology. Brief essay. M.-L., 1964.

10. Likhachev D. S. At the forefront of realism in Russian literature. - L .: Questions of Literature, 1957, No. 1.

11. Lyubimov L. The art of ancient Rus'. – M.: 1996.

12. Materials from the site http://www.helpeducation.ru

13. The Tale of Bygone Years // Monuments of Literature of Ancient Rus'. The Beginning of Russian Literature. X - beginning of the XII century. - M., 1978.

14. Polyakov L. V. Book centers of Ancient Rus'. - L., 1991.

15. Rybakov B.A. Ancient Rus', Legends. Epics. Chronicles. - M., 1963

16. O. V. Curds. Literature of Ancient Rus': A Teacher's Guide. – M.: Enlightenment, 1981. – 128 p.

17. Likhachev D.S. Great heritage // Likhachev D.S. Selected works in three volumes. Volume 2. - L .: Khudozh. lit., 1987.

18. Polyakov L. V. Book centers of Ancient Rus'. - L., 1991.

19. The Tale of Bygone Years // Monuments of Literature of Ancient Rus'. The Beginning of Russian Literature. X - beginning of the XII century. - M., 1978.

20. Likhachev D. S. Textology. On the material of Russian literature of the X-XVII centuries. - M.-L., 1962; Textology. Brief essay. M.-L., 1964.

21. Likhachev D.S. Great heritage // Likhachev D.S. Selected works in three volumes. Volume 2. - L .: Khudozh. lit., 1987.

22. Likhachev VD, Likhachev DS Artistic heritage of Ancient Rus' and modernity. - L., 1971.

23. Kozhinov V.V. History of Rus' and the Russian word. – M.: Algorithm, 1999.

24. Adrianov-Perets V.P. Man in the educational literature of Ancient Rus'. - TODRL. L., 1972, v. XXVII.

26. Likhachev D.S. Poetics of ancient Russian literature. 2nd ed. - L., 1971.

Subject No. 13 Religious outlook. Materialism

worldview

We are already living in the 21st century and we see how the dynamics of social life has increased, surprising us global change in all structures of politics, culture, economics. People have lost faith in better life: elimination of poverty, hunger, crime. Every year crime is increasing, there are more and more beggars. The goal - to turn our Earth into a universal home, where everyone will be given a worthy place, has turned into unreality, into the category of utopias and fantasies. Uncertainty has put a person before a choice, forcing him to look around and think about what is happening in the world with people. In this situation, the problems of worldview are revealed.
At any stage, a person (society) has a well-defined worldview, i.e. a system of knowledge, ideas on the world and man's place in it, on man's attitude to the surrounding reality and to himself. In addition, the worldview includes the basic life positions of people, their conviction ideals. By worldview one should understand not all human knowledge about the world, but only fundamental knowledge - extremely general.

How is the world?

What is the place of man in the world?

What is consciousness?

What is truth?

What is philosophy?

What is the happiness of a person?

These are ideological questions and basic problems.

A worldview is a part of a person's consciousness, an idea of the world and a person's place in it. Worldview is a more or less holistic system of assessments and views of people on: the world; purpose and meaning of life; means of achieving life goals; essence of human relations.

There are three types of worldview:

1. Attitude: - emotional and psychological side, at the level of moods, feelings.

2. Perception of the world: - the formation of cognitive images of the world using visual representations.

3. World outlook: - the cognitive-intellectual side of the worldview, it happens: life-everyday and theoretical.

There are three historical types of worldview - mythological, religious, everyday, philosophical, but we will talk about this in more detail in the next chapter.

Religious worldview

Religion is a form of worldview based on the belief in the existence of supernatural forces. This specific form reflection of reality and still it remains a significant organized and organizing force in the world.

The religious worldview is represented by the forms of three world religions:

1. Buddhism - 6-5 centuries. BC. First appeared in ancient India, the founder - the Buddha. In the center is the doctrine of noble truths (Nirvana). In Buddhism there is no soul, there is no God as the creator and supreme being, there is no spirit and history;

2. Christianity - 1st century AD, first appeared in Palestine, a common sign of faith in Jesus Christ as a god-man, the savior of the world. The main source of doctrine is the Bible (Holy Scripture). Three branches of Christianity: Catholicism, Orthodoxy, Protestantism;

3. Islam - 7th century AD, formed in Arabia, founder - Mohammed, the main principles of Islam are set forth in the Koran. The main dogma: worship of the one god Allah, Muhammad is the messenger of Allah. The main branches of Islam are Sunnism, Shinnism.

Religion performs important historical functions: it forms the consciousness of the unity of the human race, develops universal norms; acts as the bearer of cultural values, streamlining and preserving customs, traditions and customs. Religious ideas are contained not only in philosophy, but also in poetry, painting, architectural art, politics, and everyday consciousness.

Worldview constructions, being included in the cult system, acquire the character of a dogma. And this gives the worldview a special spiritual and practical character. Worldview constructions become the basis for formal regulation and regulation, streamlining and preserving mores, customs, and traditions. With the help of rituals, religion cultivates human feelings of love, kindness, tolerance, compassion, mercy, duty, justice, etc., giving them a special value, associating their presence with the sacred, the supernatural.

Mythological consciousness historically precedes religious consciousness. The religious worldview is more perfect than the mythological one in logical terms. The systemic nature of religious consciousness implies its logical ordering, and continuity with mythological consciousness is ensured by using the image as the main lexical unit. The religious worldview "works" on two levels: on the theoretical and ideological (in the form of theology, philosophy, ethics, social doctrine of the church), i.e. at the level of understanding of the world, and socio-psychological, i.e. level of feeling. At both levels, religiosity is characterized by belief in the supernatural - belief in a miracle. A miracle is against the law. Law is called immutability in change, the indispensable uniformity of the action of all homogeneous things. A miracle contradicts the very essence of the law: Christ walked on water, as if on land, and this miracle exists. Mythological representations have no idea of a miracle: for them, the most unnatural is natural. The religious worldview already distinguishes between the natural and the unnatural, it already has limitations. The religious picture of the world is much more contrasting than the mythological one, richer in colors.
It is much more critical than mythological, and less presumptuous. However, everything revealed by the worldview is incomprehensible, contrary to reason, the religious worldview explains by a universal force that can disrupt the natural course of things and harmonize any chaos.
Faith in this external superpower is the basis of religiosity. Religious philosophy, like theology, proceeds from the thesis that there is some ideal superpower in the world, capable of manipulating both nature and the fate of people at will. At the same time, both religious philosophy and theology substantiate and prove by theoretical means both the necessity of Faith and the presence of an ideal superpower - God.
Religious outlook and religious philosophy are a kind of idealism, i.e. such a direction in the development of social consciousness, in which the original substance, i.e. the foundation of the world is the Spirit, the idea. Varieties of idealism are subjectivism, mysticism, etc. The opposite of a religious worldview is an atheistic worldview.

In our time, religion plays a significant role, religious educational institutions have begun to open more, in pedagogical university and school practice, the direction of the culturological representation of religions within the framework of a civilizational approach is actively developing, at the same time atheistic educational stereotypes are preserved and religious-sectarian apologetics is encountered under the slogan of absolute equality of all religions. The Church and the State are now on an equal footing, there is no enmity between them, they are loyal to each other, they compromise. Religion gives meaning and knowledge, and therefore stability to human existence, helps him overcome everyday difficulties.

The most important features of religion are sacrifice, belief in paradise, cult in God.

The German theologian G. Küng believes that religion has a future, because: 1) modern world his immediacy is not in proper order, he arouses longing for the Other; 2) the difficulties of life raise ethical questions that develop into religious ones; 3) religion means the development of relations to the absolute meaning of being, and this concerns every person.

Conclusion

Worldview is not only the content, but also a way of understanding reality, as well as the principles of life that determine the nature of activity. The nature of ideas about the world contributes to the setting of certain goals, from the generalization of which a general life plan is formed, ideals are formed that give the worldview an effective force. The content of consciousness turns into a worldview when it acquires the character of convictions, the complete and unshakable confidence of a person in the correctness of his ideas. The worldview changes synchronously with the outside world, but the basic principles remain unchanged.

Materialism

The concept of materialism

Materialism (lat. materialis- material) - a philosophical worldview, according to which matter, as an objective reality, is ontologically the primary principle (cause, condition, limitation) in the sphere of being, and the ideal (concepts, will, consciousness, etc.) is secondary (result, consequence ). Materialism asserts the existence of the only "absolute" substance of being - matter; all entities are formed by matter, and ideal phenomena (including consciousness) are processes of interaction of material entities. The laws of the material world apply to the whole world, including society and man.

The term "materialism" was introduced by Gottfried Leibniz: the word "materialists" he characterized his ideological opponents

History of materialism

Similar information.

THE RISE OF RUSSIAN LITERATURE

"Izbornik" of 1076 is one of the oldest Russian handwritten books.

Getting acquainted with ancient Russian manuscripts of the 11th-14th centuries, establishing the sources used by Russian writers - chroniclers, hagiographers (authors of lives), authors of solemn words or teachings, we are convinced that in the annals we do not have abstract declarations about the benefits of enlightenment; in the 10th and first half of the 11th century. in Rus', a huge amount of work was done: huge literature was copied from Bulgarian originals or translated from Greek. As a result, during the first two centuries of the existence of their written language, ancient Russian scribes became acquainted with all the main genres and main monuments of Byzantine literature.

Investigating the history of the introduction of Rus' to the bookishness of Byzantium and Bulgaria, D.S. Likhachev points out two characteristic features of this process. First, he notes the existence of a special intermediary literature, that is, a circle literary monuments common to the national literatures of Byzantium, Bulgaria, Serbia, Rus'. The basis of this intermediary literature was ancient Bulgarian literature. Subsequently, it began to replenish with translations or original monuments created by the Western Slavs, in Rus', in Serbia. This intermediary literature included books of scripture, liturgical books, works of church writers, historical works (chronicles), natural sciences (“Physiologist”, “Shestodnev”), and also - albeit to a lesser extent than the genres listed above - monuments of historical narratives, such as the novel about Alexander the Great and the story of the conquest of Jerusalem by the Roman emperor Titus. From this list, it can be seen that most of the repertoire of both the most ancient Bulgarian literature and, accordingly, the all-Slavic intermediary literature were translations from the Greek language, works of early Christian literature by authors of the 3rd-7th centuries. It should be noted that any ancient Slavic literature cannot be mechanically divided into original and translated literature: translated literature was an organic part of national literatures at an early stage of their development.

Moreover - and this is the second feature of the development of literature of the X-XII centuries. - we should not talk about the influence of Byzantine literature on ancient Bulgarian, but this latter on Russian or Serbian. We can talk about a kind of transplantation process, when literature is, as it were, completely transferred to a new soil, but here, as D. S. Likhachev emphasizes, its monuments “continue independent life under new conditions and sometimes in new forms, just as a transplanted plant begins to live and grow in a new environment.

The fact that Ancient Rus' began to read someone else's a little earlier than to write its own, in no way indicates the secondary nature of Russian national culture: we are talking about only one area of artistic creativity and only one area of \u200b\u200bthe art of the word, namely literature, that is, the creation written texts. Moreover, we note that at first among the written monuments there were a lot of non-literary texts from the modern point of view - it was at best special literature: works on theology, ethics, history, etc. If we talk about verbal art, then the bulk of his monuments were at that time, of course, unrecordable folklore works. This relationship between literature and folklore in the spiritual life of the society of that time must not be forgotten.

Chronicles. Interest in the past of the Universe, the history of other countries, the fate of the great people of antiquity was satisfied by translations of Byzantine chronicles. These chronicles began a presentation of events from the creation of the world, retold the biblical story, cited individual episodes from the history of the countries of the East, told about the campaigns of Alexander the Great, and then about the history of the countries of the Middle East. Having brought the story to the last decades before the beginning of our era, the chroniclers went back and set out the ancient history of Rome, starting from the legendary times of the founding of the city. The rest and, as a rule, most of the chronicles were occupied by the story of the Roman and Byzantine emperors. The chronicles ended with a description of events contemporary to their compilation.

Thus, the chroniclers created the impression of the continuity of the historical process, of a kind of “change of kingdoms”. Of the translations of Byzantine chronicles, the most famous in Rus' in the 11th century. received translations of the "Chronicles of George Amartol" and "Chronicles of John Malala". The first of them, together with a continuation made on Byzantine soil, brought the narrative to the middle of the tenth century, the second - to the time of Emperor Justinian (527-565).

Perhaps one of the defining features of the composition of the chronicles was their desire for an exhaustive completeness of the dynastic series. This feature is also characteristic of biblical books (where long lists of genealogies follow), and of medieval chronicles, and of the historical epic. In the chronicles we are considering are listed All Roman emperors and All Byzantine emperors, although information about some of them was limited only to indicating the duration of their reign or reporting on the circumstances of their accession, overthrow or death.

These dynastic lists are interrupted from time to time by plot episodes. This is information of a historical and church nature, entertaining stories about the fate of historical figures, about miraculous natural phenomena - signs. Only in the presentation of the history of Byzantium appears relatively detailed description political life of the country.

The combination of dynastic lists and plot stories was also preserved by Russian scribes, who created their own short chronographic code on the basis of lengthy Greek chronicles, supposedly called the “Chronograph according to the great exposition”.

« Alexandria". The novel about Alexander the Great, the so-called "Alexandria", was very popular in Ancient Rus'. This was not a historically accurate description of the life and deeds of the famous commander, but a typical Hellenistic adventure novel. So, Alexander, contrary to reality, is declared the son of the former Egyptian king and sorcerer Nektonav, and not the son of the Macedonian king Philip; the birth of a hero is accompanied by heavenly signs. Alexander is credited with campaigns, conquests and travels, which we do not know about from historical sources- all of them are generated by purely literary fiction. It is noteworthy that significant place the novel is devoted to the description of outlandish lands that Alexander allegedly visited during his campaigns to the East. He meets in these lands giants 24 cubits high (about 12 meters), giants, fat and shaggy, like lions, six-legged animals, fleas the size of a toad, sees disappearing and re-emerging trees, stones, touching which a person turned black, visits the land where eternal night reigns, etc.

In "Alexandria" we also encounter action-packed (and also pseudo-historical) collisions. So, for example, it is told how Alexander, under the guise of his own ambassador, appeared to the Persian king Darius, with whom he fought at that time. No one recognizes the imaginary ambassador, and Darius puts him with him at the feast. One of the nobles of the Persian king, who visited the Macedonians as part of an embassy from Darius, recognizes Alexander. However, taking advantage of the fact that Darius and the rest of the feasters were very drunk, Alexander slips out of the palace, but on the way he hardly escapes from the chase: he barely manages to cross the Gagina (Stranga) river, which has frozen overnight: the ice has already begun to melt and collapse, the horse Alexandra falls through and dies, but the hero himself still manages to jump ashore. Persian pursuers are left with nothing on the opposite bank of the river.

"Alexandria" is an indispensable part of all ancient Russian chronographs; from edition to edition, the adventure and fantastic theme intensifies in it, which once again indicates an interest in the plot-entertaining, and not the actual historical side of this work.

"The Life of Eustathius Plakida". In ancient Russian literature, imbued with the spirit of historicism, turned to worldview problems, there was no place for open literary fiction (readers apparently trusted the miracles of "Alexandria" - after all, all this happened a long time ago and somewhere in unknown lands, at the end of the world!), Everyday story or a novel about the private life of a private person. Strange as it may seem at first glance, but to a certain extent the need for such plots was filled by such authoritative and closely related genres as the lives of saints, patericons or apocrypha.

Researchers have long noticed that the lengthy lives of Byzantine saints in some cases were very reminiscent of an ancient novel: sudden changes in the fate of heroes, imaginary death, recognition and meeting after many years of separation, attacks by pirates or predatory animals - all these traditional plot motifs of an adventure novel strangely coexisted in some lives with the idea of glorifying the ascetic or martyr for the Christian faith. A typical example of such a life is "The Life of Eustathius Plakida", translated back in Kievan Rus.

At the beginning and at the end of the monument there are traditional hagiographic collisions: the strategist (commander) Plakida decides to be baptized after seeing a miraculous sign. The life ends with a story about how Plakida (who received the name Eustathius at baptism) was executed by order of a pagan emperor, for he refused to renounce the Christian faith.

But the main part of the life is the story of the amazing fate of Placis. As soon as Evstafiy was baptized, terrible misfortunes fell upon him: all his slaves perish from the pestilence, and the eminent strategist, having become completely poor, is forced to leave his native places. His wife is taken away by a shipbuilder - Evstafiy has nothing to pay for the fare. Before his eyes, wild animals drag away their young sons. Fifteen years after that, Evstafiy lived in a distant village, where he was hired to guard the “zhit”.

But now it's time for random happy meetings - this is also a traditional plot device of an adventure novel. Eustathius is found by his former comrades-in-arms, he is returned to Rome and again appointed as a strategos. The army led by Eustathius goes on a campaign and stops in the very village where Eustathius' wife lives. Two young warriors spent the night in her house. These are the sons of Placis; it turns out that the peasants took them from the animals and raised them. After talking, the warriors guess that they are siblings, and the woman in whose house they are staying guesses that she is their mother. Then the woman finds out that the strategist is her husband Eustace. The family is happily reunited.

It can be assumed that the ancient Russian reader followed the misadventures of Placis with no less excitement than the instructive story of his death.

Apocrypha. Apocrypha - legends about biblical characters that were not included in canonical (recognized by the church) biblical books, discussions on topics that worried medieval readers: about the struggle in the world of good and evil, about the ultimate fate of mankind, descriptions of heaven and hell or unknown lands "at the end of the world."

Most of the apocrypha are entertaining plot stories that struck the imagination of readers either with everyday details about the life of Christ, the apostles, prophets unknown to them, or with miracles and fantastic visions. The church tried to fight apocryphal literature. Special lists of banned books were compiled - indexes. However, in judgments about which works are unconditionally “renounced books”, that is, unacceptable for reading by orthodox Christians, and which are only apocryphal (literally apocryphal- secret, intimate, that is, designed for a reader experienced in theological matters), the medieval censors did not have unity. The indices varied in composition; in collections, sometimes very authoritative, we also find apocryphal texts next to canonical biblical books and lives. Sometimes, however, even here they were overtaken by the hand of zealots of piety: in some collections, the pages with the text of the Apocrypha are torn out or their text is crossed out. Nevertheless, there were a lot of apocryphal works, and they continued to be copied throughout the centuries-old history of ancient Russian literature.

Patristics. Patristics, that is, the writings of those Roman and Byzantine theologians of the 3rd-7th centuries who enjoyed special authority in the Christian world and were revered as "fathers of the church": John Chrysostom, Basil the Great, Gregory of Nazianzus, Athanasius of Alexandria and others.

In their works, the dogmas of the Christian religion were explained, the Holy Scriptures were interpreted, Christian virtues were affirmed and vices were denounced, various worldview questions were raised. At the same time, works of both instructive and solemn eloquence had considerable aesthetic value. The authors of the solemn words intended to be pronounced in the church during the divine service were perfectly able to create an atmosphere of festive ecstasy or reverence, which was supposed to embrace the faithful when remembering the glorified event of church history, they perfectly mastered the art of rhetoric, which Byzantine writers inherited from antiquity: not by chance, many of the Byzantine theologians studied with pagan rhetors.

In Rus', John Chrysostom (d. 407) was especially famous; from the words belonging to him or attributed to him, entire collections were compiled, bearing the names "Chrysostom" or "Chrystostruy".

The language of liturgical books is especially colorful and rich in paths. Let's give some examples. In service menaias (a collection of services in honor of the saints, arranged according to the days when they are venerated) of the 11th century. we read: “A bunch of thought vines has ripened, but it has been cast into the winepress of torment, you have poured out tenderness for us wine.” A literal translation of this phrase will destroy the artistic image, so we will only explain the essence of the metaphor. The saint is compared to a mature bunch of vines, but it is emphasized that this is not a real, but a spiritual (“mental”) vine; the tormented saint is likened to grapes that are crushed in a “winepress” (pit, vat) in order to “exude” the juice for making wine, the torment of the saint “exudes” the “wine of tenderness” - a feeling of reverence and compassion for him.

A few more metaphorical images from the same service menaias of the 11th century: “From the depths of malice, the last tip of the height of virtue, like an eagle, flying high, gloriously ascended, praised Matthew!”; “Strained prayer bows and arrows and a fierce snake, a creeping snake, you killed thou, blessed, from that harm the holy herd was delivered”;

“The towering sea, charming polytheism, gloriously passed through the storm of divine rule, a quiet haven for all being drowned.” “Prayer bows and arrows”, “a storm of polytheism”, which raises waves on the “charming (treacherous, deceitful) sea” of vain life - all these are metaphors designed for a reader who has a developed sense of the word and sophisticated figurative thinking, who is excellently versed in traditional Christian symbolism. And as can be judged from the original works of Russian authors - chroniclers, hagiographers, creators of teachings and solemn words, this high art was fully accepted by them and implemented in their work.

author Lebedev Yury Vladimirovich

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