LESSON 21

ANCIENT CULTURE. PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT.

“Ancient history developed not only in time - it also moved in space. First one, then other peoples became the bearers of human progress, as if the focus of world history, for centuries, sometimes for millennia; then the new ones picked up the baton of development, and the centers of the old civilizations, once great, plunged into twilight for a long time ... "(N. A. Dmitrieva, N. A. Vinogradova)

Ancient civilizations were replaced by culture, which became the basis , the cradle of all European civilization. Her ideal was the image human citizen, harmoniously developed physically and spiritually. The masterpieces of this Mediterranean culture have inspired poets and artists, playwrights and composers for several centuries. Imbued with joy, light, faith in the dignity, beauty and value of man, even today they continue to "give us artistic pleasure and in a certain respect serve as the norm and an unattainable model."

What was the name of this culture?

Of course it is ancient culture. It arose in the free city-states of Ancient Greece, and later in Rome, which conquered it.

What is antiquity? How did this term come about?

Antiquity is called the entire one and a half thousandth period from the appearance in the 1st millennium BC. e. Ancient Greece until the fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century. n. e. And ancient culture is called the culture of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome in the corresponding historical period.

Word "antiquity" comes from the Latin "antiques" - "ancient". The term arose for the first time in the 15th century. in medieval Italy, where, in the struggle against church tradition, a new culture of the Renaissance was established, which did not know Eastern civilizations that were much older than the Greek. After some time, the term "antiquity" entered European culture.

Antiquity can be divided into the following periods of historical development:

1. Aegean (Crete-Mycenaean) culture (III-II millennium BC)

2. Culture of Ancient Greece (XI-I centuries BC)

Homeric period (XI-VIII centuries BC)

Archaic period (7th-6th centuries BC)

Classic period (V-IVbb. BC)

Hellenistic period (IV-I centuries BC)

3. Etruscan culture (VIII-VI centuries BC)

4. Culture of Ancient Rome (V century BC - V century AD)

Republic period (V-I centuries BC)

Empire period (1st century BC - 5th century AD)

Of course, these frameworks are rather arbitrary, since it is impossible to indicate the exact boundaries of a continuous, eternal process of development.

What is the significance of ancient culture, its achievements and features?

Ancient civilization made a significant contribution to the history of the world artistic culture, remaining to this day the ideal of beauty and a model of artistic taste. It is difficult to assess the significance of the artistic heritage of this period. The ancient monuments of culture clearly expressed ideas about the universe, religious beliefs, moral ideals and aesthetic tastes of the era that completed the centuries-old history of the Ancient World.

“True reflection of reality, simplicity and clarity of artistic language, perfect craftsmanship - all this determines the enduring value of ancient art."(B. - I. Rivkin).

Ancient science and culture were created by free people who discovered harmony in everything, whether it was the comprehension of the universe or the human personality. Harmony and spirituality determined the organicity and integrity of Greek culture.

The queen of ancient science was philosophy. Greek philosophers were concerned with the origin of the universe and the nature of all things. The philosophical schools of the Greeks were free associations, gathering around the Teacher his like-minded people and students. Such are the schools of Thales, Anaximander, Heraclitus of the archaic period. Each scientist-philosopher had his own doctrine. Democritus considered atoms moving in the void to be the basis of everything, and according to his theory, all living things differed from inanimate ones by the presence of a soul. Socrates argued that self-knowledge is the beginning of true wisdom. Plato created the doctrine of ideas - prototypes of the world. His student - the encyclopedic scientist Aristotle - considered matter to be the basis of everything.

had a strong influence on the culture of many peoples. ancient mythology, on the plots of which many works of Western European art are written.

Ancient literature survived the centuries and forever entered the golden fund of mankind. The texts of ancient authors were copied by monks in the Middle Ages, they were perceived as the norm and ideal in the Renaissance. Many generations were brought up on the noble beauty and calm grandeur of the heroes of antiquity. Pushkin rearranged Catullus and Horace. Leo Tolstoy studied Greek in order to read Homer in the original.

But a special place in the culture of antiquity was occupied by plastic arts: architecture, sculpture, painting and arts and crafts, striking in their diversity and richness. The ancient order system still delights with the nobility of forms and constructive simplicity and is used in modern architecture. The developed system of visual means of reproducing reality can be considered an invaluable contribution of antiquity to world art: the methods of the anatomical structure and movement of the figure, the representation of three-dimensional space and the three-dimensionality of objects in it.

What are the origins of antiquity, what civilization preceded it?

The founders and creators of ancient culture were the ancient Greeks, who called themselves Hellenes, and your country - Hellas.

However, even before the birth of Greek culture in the Eastern Mediterranean in the III-II millennium BC. e. there was an older civilization, which, according to legends and archeological finds, dominated the entire Mediterranean and died in the 15th century. BC e. as a result of a natural disaster. It was the predecessor of ancient culture, the Cretan-Mycenaean, or Aegean, civilization, with which many myths and legends are associated.

One of the most amazing is a legend that has been worrying people for two and a half millennia. This the legend of Atlantis a mysterious island swallowed by the ocean in one day and one night. Apparently, it was Atlantis that was the cradle of all ancient cultures and the foremother of civilizations.

The ancient Greek philosopher was the first to tell the world about the beautiful island and the mighty state of the Atlanteans. Plato(427-347 BC) in his dialogues Timaeus and Critias. Plato relied on the story of his ancestor Solon, who, traveling in Egypt, learned the history of Atlantis from the Egyptian priests.

1 - Plato

Plato on Atlantis

"Poseidon ... populated it (the island) with his children"

"Poseidon divided the island into 10 parts" (according to the number of sons)

“... He gave Atlantis the house of his mother and the surrounding possessions - as the largest and best share ...”

“This whole region lay very high and steeply cut off to the sea”

“This whole part of the island was turned to the south wind, and from the north it was closed by mountains ...”

2 - A variant of the design of Atlantis according to Plato, made by Drozdova T. N. (from the book "In search of the image of Atlas nt ida"): I - the Horseshoe archipelago; 1 - about. Horseshoe - Atlantis; 2 - islands of the Northern Trident of Poseidon (Azores); 3 - South Trident of Poseidon Islands (Canary Islands); A is the capital of Atlantis

3 - The main state of Atlantis. Atlantis Island - a version of the reconstruction of the "Horseshoe" (according to T. N. Drozdova):

1 - Kingdom of Atlanta; 2 - Kingdom

3 vmel; 3 - Kingdom of Amphereus;

4 - the Kingdom of Evaemon; 5 - Kingdom of Mneseya; 6 - Kingdom of Autokhon;

7 - Kingdom of Elasippa; 8 - Kingdom of Mnestor; 9 - Kingdom of Azaes; 10 - Kingdom of Diaperen

According to Plato, Atlantis was in the ocean beyond the Pillars of Heracles (Strait of Gibraltar). The island was inhabited by the Atlanteans - strong and proud descendants of the god of the sea Poseidon and his wife Kleito, who not only kept the entire Mediterranean in obedience, but also carried their high culture to the conquered peoples. Plato wrote: “On this island, called Atlantis, there arose a great and admirable alliance of kings, whose power extended over the whole island, to many other islands and to part of the mainland, and moreover, on this side of the strait, they took possession of Libya as far as Egypt and Europe. up to Tirrenia (Etruria)." Plato also reports on the capital of the Atlanteans, as round as the sun's disk, located on a picturesque plain, approximately 555 by 370 km in size. “Around the capital stretched a plain, surrounded by mountains, reaching along its edges to the sea. This whole plain was turned to the south and protected from the north winds by the mountains surrounding it, very high and beauty surpassing all the current ones ”(Plato). The capital was fortified with three water and two earth rings. In the center of it was a hill, on top of which, at the behest of Poseidon, two springs with hot and cold water spouted. The whole city was divided by beams into 10 sectors. Canals were dug, interconnected by crooked channels, and high bridges were built connecting all parts of the city. “They dug canals that connected with bridges of such a width that one trireme could pass from one water ring to another ... The largest water ring, with which the sea was directly connected, had a width of three stages (555m)” (Plato). After that, the Atlanteans surrounded their capital with impregnable walls, running strictly along the circumference.

The central part (acropolis) was located in the center, on a flat rocky hill. "In the very center stood the inaccessible holy temple of Kleito and Poseidon, surrounded by a golden wall." There was also a fortress on the acropolis. In the fortress were the royal palace and the sacred grove of Poseidon with outlandish trees.

The largest was the kingdom of the eldest son of Poseidon and Kleito - Atlanta. Here was the capital of Atlantis. Here is how Plato writes about it: “The whole plain that surrounded the city, and itself, surrounded by mountains that stretched to the sea, was a flat surface ...”, "straight channels dug, almost a hundred feet wide (30 m) after a hundred stadia (18,500m)", “channels were dug ... the width ... had stages (185 m), the length along the perimeter was 10 thousand stages”, "The canals are connected to each other and to the city by crooked ducts...", « ToEach plot is 10 by 10 stadia... Total plots are 60,000” (throughout the plain)

5 - Plato and Aristotle. Fragment of a drawing from Raphael's fresco "School of Athens"

These questions have troubled scientists and travelers for many centuries. They searched for Atlantis in Africa, and in Europe, and in America. But today, when representatives of the exact sciences began to search for the mysterious island, only two versions of the location of Atlantis remained. This is the Atlantic Ocean, according to Plato, and the Mediterranean Sea with the island of Crete.

Modern oceanologists have identified many seamounts at the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean, the highest of which form the Azores, Canaries, Bermuda, Bahamas and other islands. But no traces of large sunken islands have been found there. Maybe the Platonic Pillars of Hercules are not Shbraltar, but either the mouth of the Nile, or the Bosphorus and Dardanelles, or other rocks in the Mediterranean Sea?

Considering this, we can say that at that time in the Mediterranean there was a powerful state of the Atlanteans, which kept many peoples in obedience, and in the 15th century. BC e. died suddenly. Perhaps it was the Cretan-Mycenaean state, the ancestor of the greatest culture, the continuation of which was then classical Greek art.

Yes, Atlantis, described by Plato, is not on the map of the Earth. But in the legend of a lost high civilization, one can find the origins of European culture.

HOMEWORK

Read the text, do the tasks

Tasks and questions to the text

1 Underline the lines in the text dedicated to Atlantis.

2 Underline in the text the expressions of Plato and Aristotle, which have become winged.

3 With the names of which philosophers are the words "academy" and "lyceum" associated?

4 What did Plato consider the fundamental principle of the world, and what did Aristotle consider?

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5 Who were the teachers of Plato and Aristotle?

Vladimir Butromeev. Plato and Aristotle

Plato's real name is Aristocles. He was nicknamed Plato for his strength and broad chest. Platos means "wide". As a young man, he wrestled and was the champion of the Isthmian Games, a competition similar to the Olympic Games.

Plato came from a royal family. His mother married a second time to one of the friends and assistants of Pericles, who then ruled Athens. Plato grew up and was brought up, communicating with famous poets and writers, artists and actors. He himself began to write comedies and tragedies, but, having met Socrates, he burned his writings and devoted himself to philosophy.

The trial of Socrates and the death of his beloved teacher shocked Plato. He left Greece and traveled a lot. By that time he had already become a well-known philosopher, and one of the associates of the tyrant Dionysius, who ruled in Syracuse, the main city of the island of Sicily, invited him to the royal court. This entourage thought that Plato would be able to convince Dionysius to reign justly, and not cruelly and arbitrarily. Plato in his writings wrote a lot about the ideal state, which should live according to reasonable laws, and he also wanted to make his dreams come true. When Dionysius realized why Plato had arrived, he sent him back to Greece, secretly ordering him to be sold into slavery along the way. “He is a philosopher, which means that he will experience happiness in slavery,” the tyrant said mockingly.

Plato was bought by a certain Annikeris, a rich man who was taking his horses to Greece to exhibit them in equestrian competitions. Upon learning that he had become the owner of the famous philosopher, Annikerides immediately set him free. When Plato's friends collected money for his ransom, Annikerides refused to take it and handed it over to Plato himself.

Now everyone knows the name of the great philosopher Plato, and no one remembers the name of Annikerides.

With the money received from Annikerides, Plato bought land on the outskirts of Athens, built himself a house and opened his philosophical school. Plato's house was located near the place where, according to legend, the mythical hero Academ was buried, so Plato's school was called the Academy. The Academy is now also called higher educational institutions and collections of recognized scientists, writers and artists.

Plato wrote many works. Some of them are devoted to explaining the philosophical ideas of Socrates, others - to describing the structure of a reasonable state. These writings also describe Atlantis - a state in which people lived according to wise laws. Modern scholars argue whether Plato was referring to the real Atlantis sunk to the seabed, or whether he simply invented it to better interpret the laws he wanted to offer people. Science fiction writers have written more than one adventure novel about Atlantis, and the mystery of Atlantis remains a fascinating mystery.

Like many other philosophers, Plato was looking for the fundamental principle of all things. He believed that all things have an invisible idea, which is their most important essence and reason. These ideas, according to Plato, are the fundamental principle of the world. Therefore, Plato is called the father of idealistic philosophy.

Shortly before his death, Plato was asked if he thought they would write about him in the future. The philosopher replied: "It would be a good name, but there will be notes." This phrase became winged, as did his postscript in the will become famous. Having distributed his property among close people and relatives, Plato wrote: "But I have no debt to anyone."

But even more famous is Plato's quarrel with another great philosopher of antiquity, Aristotle. Aristotle was Plato's favorite student. But, having mastered the philosophy of Plato, Aristotle decided that the teacher was mistaken in the most important thing - in the question of the fundamental principle of the world. Aristotle came to the conclusion that all things exist by themselves, without any ideas preceding them. Teacher and student separated. When Aristotle was asked why he left Plato, Aristotle replied: "Plato is my friend, but the truth is dearer."

Aristotle wrote a huge number of philosophical treatises. He embraced with his mind all nature and all areas of human knowledge. He founded his own philosophical school. She was in the area dedicated to the god of arts, Apollo, the Lycian. Likeysky means wolf, such a nickname

Apollo received ancient tradition because he was once depicted as a wolf. The word "lyceum", or "lyceum", became famous thanks to the school of Aristotle, the so-called educational institutions in which they teach according to a special, complicated program.

Aristotle is famous for the fact that he was the tutor of Alexander the Great. But most of all he became famous for his words: "Plato is my friend, but the truth is dearer." They have become winged, they are said when they want to emphasize their commitment to the truth, in spite of any personal sympathies and friendly ties.

Coursework in the discipline: World culture and art

Completed by 1st year student Golysheva A.V.

Krasnoyarsk Institute of Economics of the St. Petersburg Academy of Management and Economics (NOU VPO)

Krasnoyarsk, 2007

Introduction.

About five thousand years ago, in the south of the Balkan Peninsula and its surrounding islands in the eastern Mediterranean, a culture was born that was destined to play the greatest role in the history of mankind - the culture of the ancient Greeks, or Hellenes. Greece never aspired to dominance in the world, its inhabitants took part in only a few historical battles, and few of the Greek generals managed to gain great fame. For more than the last two millennia, this people has been under the rule of foreign conquerors, and only a century and a half ago Greece regained its independence and appeared on the map as an independent state.

It would seem that Greece in the past was no different from its neighbors - neither a special political role, nor any exceptional natural conditions. However, it was here that two and a half millennia ago culture reached such a flowering that for many centuries seemed unattainable. Athenian democracy, founded in those distant times, still serves as a model for anyone who thinks. 1 The Lion's Gate in Mycenae is about the equality and freedom of every citizen.

The Greeks attached no less importance to human health. It is no coincidence that the first healer truly worthy of the title of a doctor was the Greek Hippocrates. And the samples that have come down to us artistic creativity- sculpture, architecture, murals and ceramics, as well as myths and legends of Ancient Greece - belong to the highest, truly priceless creations of mankind.

In my term paper, I want to talk about the customs and customs of the ancient Greeks, about the great Greek poets and scientists who still amaze us, about the amazing architecture and sculpture, and much more. (See Fig. 1) Although classical Greece has long been exists, the influence of its legacy on world culture will continue for many, many years to come.

1. CULTURE OF HELLAS IN THE X-XII CENTURIES. BC.

For centuries, the classical culture of ancient Greece has occupied the imagination of people and still fascinates. She was the successor of the ancient Eastern cultures, acquiring new features over time and became the cradle European culture. The Achaeans arrived in Greece in the 21st century. BC. from the north and northwest and created their kingdoms in Athens, Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos and Thebes, and around the 16th century. BC. conquered Crete (see fig. 2).

The original and multifaceted early Greek culture was formed in 3000-1200. BC e. Various factors accelerated its movement. For example, the completed ethnogenesis of the Greek people strengthened the internal ties of the entire Greek-speaking world, despite frequent local clashes.

The creative activity of the Greeks of the Bronze Age was based on the development of a large stock of experimental knowledge. First of all, it should be noted the level and volume of technological knowledge that allowed the population of Hellas to widely develop specialized handicraft production. Metallurgy included not only high-temperature (up to 1083°C) smelting of copper. Casters also worked with tin, lead, silver and gold, rare native iron was used for jewelry. The creation of alloys was not limited to bronze, already in the 17th-16th centuries. BC e. The Greeks made electr and knew well the technique of gilding bronze items. Bronze was used to cast tools, weapons and household items. All these products were distinguished by the rationality of the form and the quality of workmanship.

Pottery also testifies to the fluency in complex thermal processes carried out in furnaces of various designs. The use of the potter's wheel, known since the 13th century. BC e., contributed to the creation of other mechanisms set in motion by the power of a person or draft animals. So, wheeled transport already at the beginning of the II millennium BC. e. consisted of war chariots and ordinary wagons. The principle of rotation, which has long been used in spinning, was used in machines for the manufacture of ropes. When processing wood, turning and drilling devices were used. Achievements of engineering Achaeans clearly illustrate created in the XVI-XII centuries. BC e. water pipes and closed water collectors. Particularly indicative is the knowledge of hydraulics and the accuracy of the calculations made during the construction of secret water supply systems in the fortresses of Mycenae, Tiryns and Athens around the 1250s.

The accumulation of technological knowledge and the progress of the skill of a wide range of ordinary workers, both in agriculture and in specialized and home crafts, were the basis of the intensive economic development of the country.

1.1. ARCHITECTURE

Architecture was distinguished by high achievements. Architectural monuments clearly reflect the existence of property inequality and testify to the emergence of early class monarchies. Already monumental Cretan palaces of the XIX-XVI centuries. BC e. astounding in scale. However, it is characteristic that the general plan of the Cretan palaces was only a monumental repetition of the plan of the estate of a wealthy farmer.

Another level of architectural thought is the later palaces of the mainland kings. They are based on the central core - megaron, which also repeats the traditional plan of an ordinary dwelling. It consisted of a front room (prodomos), a main hall (domos) with a front hearth, and a back room. Many acropolises were protected by powerful stone walls fig. 3 Entrance to the palace of King Minos of Crete

Cyclopean masonry with an average thickness of 5-8 m. No less impressive is the skill of architects who created monumental beehive-shaped royal tombs, tholos. Columns and semi-columns, stone and marble carvings, wall paintings with the most complex compositions were widely used (see Fig. 3).

1.2. THE ART OF VASE PAINTING

During the X-XII centuries. BC e. the art of vase painting developed rapidly. Already at the beginning of the II millennium BC. the traditional geometric ornament of the Cretans was complemented by a spiral motif, brilliantly developed by the Cycladic masters in the previous century (see Fig. 4). Later, in the XIX-XV centuries. BC, in all regions of the country, vase painters also turned to naturalistic motifs, reproducing plants, animals and marine fauna. It should be noted that in some areas, bright local artistic traditions have developed that clearly characterize

rice. 4 Vase with warriors from Mycenae. vase painting of each center.

The breadth of society's artistic demands was manifested in the close attention of art to man and his activities. A brilliant example is the multicolored murals in the houses of Mount Jean of Akrotia, executed by several masters. If in the art of the III millennium BC. e. while few monuments are known that speak of the craving of artists for naturalness, then in the XX-XII centuries. BC e. the creations of many artists are distinguished by their ability to harmoniously combine the feeling of wildlife with the requirements of a decorative style.

1.3. LITERATURE

The literature of the early Greeks, like other peoples, went back to the traditions of ancient folklore, which included fairy tales, fables, myths and songs. With the change in social conditions, the rapid development of folk epic poetry began, glorifying the deeds of the ancestors and heroes of each tribe. By the middle of the II millennium BC. e. the epic tradition of the Greeks became more complex, professional poets-storytellers, aeds, appeared in society. In their work already in the XVII-XII centuries. BC e. a prominent place was occupied by legends about the most important historical events contemporary to them.

In the XIV-XIII centuries. BC e. epic literature has developed into a special kind of art with its own special rules of speech and musical performance, poetic meter-hexameter, an extensive supply of constant characteristic epithets, comparisons and descriptive formulas. The level of poetic creativity of the early Greeks is evidenced by the epic poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey" - outstanding monuments world literature. Both poems belong to the circle of historical narratives about the campaign of the Achaean troops after 1240. BC. to the Trojan kingdom.

1.4. WRITING

Writing in the Greek culture of the XXII-XII centuries. BC e. played a limited role. Like many peoples of the world, the inhabitants of Hellas, first of all, began to make pictorial records, known already in the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. e. Each sign of this pictographic letter denoted a whole concept. The Cretans created some signs, though not many, under the influence of Egyptian hierographic writing, which arose as early as the 4th millennium BC. e. Gradually, the forms of signs were simplified, and some began to designate only syllables.

Such a syllabic (linear) letter, which had already developed by 1700 BC. e., is called letter A, which still remains unsolved.

After 1500 BC. e. in Hellas, a more convenient form of writing was developed - the syllabic letter B. It included about half of the signs of the syllabic letter A, several dozen new signs, as well as some signs of the oldest picture writing. The counting system, as before, was based on decimal notation. Syllabary entries were still made from left to right, but the writing rules became more strict: words separated by a special sign or space were written along horizontal lines, separate texts were provided with headings and subheadings. Texts were drawn on clay tablets, scratched on stone, written with a brush or paint or ink on vessels. Achaean writing was accessible only to educated specialists. He was known by ministers in the royal palaces and some layer of wealthy citizens.

1.5. RELIGION

Initially, the Greek religion, like any other primitive religion, reflects only the weakness of man in the face of those "forces" that in nature, later in society and in his own mind, interfere, as he thinks, with his actions and pose a threat to his existence, more terrible, that he does not understand where it comes from. Primitive man is not interested in nature to the extent that it invades his life and determines its conditions.

The diverse forces of nature were personified in the form of special deities, with whom many sacred legends and myths were associated. During the XXX-XII centuries. BC e. The religious ideas of the Greek population have undergone many changes. Initially, deities who personified the forces of nature enjoyed exceptional reverence. They especially revered the Great Goddess (later Demeter, which means "Mother of Bread"), who was in charge of the fertility of the plant and animal world. She was accompanied by a male deity, followed by minor gods. Cult ceremonies included sacrifices and gifts, solemn processions and ritual dances. The deities had certain attributes, the images of which are very frequent, and they served as symbols of these heavenly powers.

The formation of early class states introduced new features into spiritual life, including sacred ideas. The community of Hellenic gods (the pantheon) received a more defined organizational structure. The worldview of the people now depicted relations between the gods, very similar to those that the Achaeans saw in the royal capitals. Therefore, on Olympus, where the main deities lived, Zeus was supreme, the father of gods and people, who ruled over the whole world (see Fig. 5). Other members of the early Hellenic pantheon subordinate to him had special rice. 5 Bronze statuette of Zeus

public functions. The Achaean epic, which preserved information about the veneration of many early Hellenic deities, also conveys a somewhat critical view of the celestials, inherent only in Greek thinking: the gods are in many ways similar to people, they have not only good qualities, but also shortcomings and weaknesses.

2. CULTURE OF THE "DARK AGES" (XI-IX CENTURIES B.C.)

The palace civilization of the Cretan-Mycenaean era left the historical scene under mysterious, still not fully clarified circumstances, around the end of the 12th century. BC e. The era of ancient civilization begins only after three and a half and even four centuries.

Thus, there is a rather significant time gap, and the question inevitably arises: what place does this chronological segment occupy (in the literature it is sometimes referred to as the "dark ages") in common process historical development of Greek society? Was it a kind of bridge that connected two very dissimilar historical eras and civilizations, or, on the contrary, did it divide them with the deepest abyss?

Archaeological research recent years made it possible to find out the true extent of the terrible catastrophe experienced by the Mycenaean civilization at the turn of the 13th-12th centuries. BC e., and also trace the main stages of its decline in the subsequent period. The logical conclusion of this process was a deep depression that engulfed the main areas of mainland and insular Greece during the so-called Sub-Mycenaean period (1125-1025 BC). Its main distinguishing feature is depressing poverty. material culture, which concealed a sharp decline in the standard of living of the bulk of the population of Greece and an equally sharp decline in the country's productive forces. The products of the Sub-Mycenaean potters that have come down to us make the most bleak impression. They are very rough in form, carelessly molded, lacking even elementary grace. Their paintings are extremely primitive and inexpressive. As a rule, they repeat the spiral motif - one of the few decorative elements inherited from Mycenaean art.

The total number of metal products that have come down from this period is extremely small. Large items, such as weapons, are extremely rare. Small crafts like brooches or rings predominate. Apparently, the population of Greece suffered from a chronic lack of metal, especially bronze, which in the XII - the first half of the XI century. BC e. still remained the mainstay of the entire Greek industry. The explanation for this deficit should, apparently, be sought in the state of isolation from the outside world in which Balkan Greece found itself even before the beginning of the Sub-Mycenaean period. Cut off from external sources of raw materials and not having sufficient internal resources of the metal, the Greek communities were forced to introduce a regime of strict economy.

True, almost at the same time, the first iron products appeared in Greece. Scattered finds of bronze knives with iron inserts date back to the very beginning of the period. It can be assumed that by the second half of the XI century. BC e. the technique of iron processing to some extent was already mastered by the Greeks themselves. However, the centers of the iron industry were still extremely few and could hardly provide the entire population of the country with a sufficient amount of metal. The decisive step in this direction was taken only in the X century.

Another one distinguishing feature submycenaean period was a decisive break with the traditions of the Mycenaean era. The most common method of burial in the Mycenaean time in chamber tombs was supplanted by individual burials in box graves (cysts) or in simple pits. Toward the end of the period, in many places, for example, in Attica, Boeotia, Crete, another new custom appears - cremation and usually accompanying burial in urns. This, again, should be seen as a departure from traditional Mycenaean customs.

A similar break with Mycenaean traditions is observed in the sphere of worship. Even in the largest Greek sanctuaries (which existed both in the Mycenaean era and in later times (starting approximately from the 9th-8th centuries BC)), there are no traces of cult activity whatsoever: the remains of buildings, votive figurines, even ceramics. Such a situation, indicating the fading of religious life, archaeologists find, in particular, in Delphi, on Delos, in the sanctuary of Hera on Samos and in some other places. The only exception to the general rule is Crete, where the worship of the gods in the traditional forms of Minoan ritual seems to have been uninterrupted throughout the period.

Perhaps no other period in the history of Greece resembles so closely the famous Thucydian description of the primitive life of the Hellenic tribes, with their continuous movement from place to place, chronological poverty and uncertainty about the future.

3. CULTURE OF THE ARCHAIC PERIOD (VIII-VI CENTURIES B.C.)

3.1. WRITING

One of the most important factors of Greek culture VIII-VI centuries. BC e. considered to be a new writing system. The alphabetic script, partly borrowed from the Phoenicians, was more convenient than the ancient Mycenaean syllabary: it consisted of only 24 characters, each of which had a firmly established phonetic meaning. If in Mycenaean society, as in other similar societies of the Bronze Age, the art of writing was available only to a few initiates who were part of a closed caste of professional scribes, now it is becoming the common property of all citizens of the policy, since each of them could master the skills of writing and reading . All this led to the rapid growth of literacy among the population of the Greek policies, as evidenced by the numerous inscriptions on stone, metal, and ceramics, the number of which is increasing as we approach the end of the archaic period.

3.2. POETRY

Greek poetry of the post-Homeric time (7th-6th centuries BC) is distinguished by its extraordinary thematic richness and variety of forms and genres. Of the later forms of the epic, two of its main variants are known: the heroic epic, represented by the so-called Cycle poems, and the didactic epic, represented by two poems by Hesiod: Works and Days and Theogony.

Gets widespread and soon becomes the leading literary direction epoch, lyric poetry, in turn, is divided into several main genres: elegy, iambic, monodic, i.e. intended for solo performance, and choral lyrics, or melik. The most important distinguishing feature of the Greek poetry of the archaic period in all its main types and genres should be recognized as its pronounced humanistic coloring.

During the 7th and first half of the 6th centuries. BC e. a number of poems arose, compiled in the style of the Homeric epic and designed to merge with the Iliad and the Odyssey and, together, form a single coherent chronicle of mythological tradition, the so-called epic "kikl" (cycle, circle).

Greek poetry of the post-Homerian period is characterized by a sharp transfer of the center of gravity of the poetic narrative to the personality of the poet himself. This trend is already clearly felt in the work of Hesiod, especially in his poem Works and Days.

In the most frank, one might say, deliberately emphasized form, the individualistic trends of the era were embodied in the work of such a remarkable lyric poet as Archilochus.

While some Greek poets sought to comprehend in their poems the complex inner world of man and find the best option for his relationship with the civil collective of the policy, others no less persistently tried to penetrate into the structure of the universe surrounding man and solve the riddle of its origin. One of these poets-thinkers was Hesiod, known to us, who in his poem "Theogony", or "The Origin of the Gods", tried to present the existing world order in its, so to speak, historical development from the gloomy and faceless primordial Chaos to the bright and harmonious world headed by Zeus the Olympian gods.

3.3. RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

In the era of the Great Colonization, the traditional Greek religion did not meet the spiritual needs of its contemporaries. Representatives of two closely related religious and philosophical teachings - the Orphics and the Pythagoreans - tried to solve this. Both those and others evaluated the earthly life of a person as a continuous chain of suffering sent down to people by the gods for their sins. At the same time, both the Orphics and the Pythagoreans believed in the immortality of the soul. The idea that the body is just a temporary "dungeon" or even "grave" of the immortal soul, which had a huge impact on many later adherents of philosophical idealism and mysticism, from Plato to the founders of the Christian faith, first arose precisely in the bosom of the Orphic- Pythagorean doctrine. Unlike the Orphics, who were closer to the broad masses of the people and based their teachings only on a somewhat rethought and updated myth about the dying and resurrecting deity of wildlife Dionysus Zagreus, the Pythagoreans were a closed aristocratic sect hostile to democracy. Their mystical teachings were of a much more refined nature, laying claim to sublime intellectuality. It is no coincidence that Pythagoras himself and his closest students and followers were passionate about mathematical calculations, while paying generous tribute to the mystical interpretation of numbers and their combinations.

Both the Orphics and the Pythagoreans tried to correct and purify the traditional beliefs of the Greeks, replacing them with a more refined, spiritually filled form of religion. A completely different view of the world, in many ways already approaching spontaneous materialism, at the same time (6th century BC) was developed and defended by representatives of the so-called Ionian natural philosophy: Thales, Anaximander and Anaximenes. All three were natives of Miletus, the largest and most economically developed of the Greek cities of Asia Minor.

For the first time in the history of mankind, the Milesian thinkers tried to present the entire universe around them as a harmoniously arranged, self-developing and self-regulating system. The first philosophers inevitably had to face the question of what should be considered the fundamental principle, the root cause of all existing things. Thales (the oldest of the Milesian natural philosophers) and Anaximenes believed that the primary substance from which everything arises and into which, in the end, everything turns, must be one of the four basic elements. At the same time, Thales preferred water, and Anaximenes preferred air. However, farther than all others along the path of abstract-theoretical comprehension natural phenomena Anaximander advanced. He announced the so-called "apeiron" as the root cause and basis of all that exists - an eternal and infinite substance, qualitatively not reducible to any of the four elements and at the same time being in continuous motion, during which opposite principles stand out from apeiron: warm and cold, dry and damp, etc. The picture of the world drawn by Anaximander was completely new and unusual for the era in which it arose. Greek natural philosophers well understood that the most reliable basis of all knowledge is experience, empirical research and observation. In essence, they were not only the first philosophers, but also the first scientists, the founders of Greek and all European science. The eldest of them, Thales, was already called by the ancients "the first mathematician", "the first astronomer", "the first physicist".

3.4. ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE

In the VII-VI centuries. BC e. Greek architects for the first time after a long break began to build monumental temple buildings from stone, limestone or marble. In the VI century. BC e. a single common Greek type of temple was developed in the form of a rectangular, elongated building, surrounded on all sides by a colonnade, sometimes single (peripter), sometimes double (dipter). At the same time, the main structural and artistic features two main architectural orders: Doric and Ionic. Typical examples of the Doric order with such characteristic features as severe power and heavy massiveness can be considered the temple of Apollo in Corinth (see Fig. 6), the temples of Posidonia (Paestum) in southern Italy and the temples of Selinut in Sicily. More graceful, slender, and at the same time, distinguished by a certain pretentiousness of decorative decoration, the buildings of the Ionic order were represented in the same period by the temples of Hera on about. Samosa,

Artemis at Ephesus (famous monument

architecture, considered one of the "seven wonders

light"), Apollo in Didyma near Miletus.

Single sculpture of the end of the archaic

period is represented by two main types:

depiction of a naked young man - kouros and

a figure dressed in a long, tight-fitting

body of a girl's chiton - bark. rice. 6 Columns of the Temple of Apollo in Corinth

Gradually improving in the transfer of proportions human body, achieving an increasing life similarity, the Greek sculptors of the VI century. BC e. have learned to overcome the static inherent in their statues.

With all the lifelikeness of the best examples of Greek archaic sculpture, almost all of them are subject to a certain aesthetic standard, depicting a beautiful, ideally built young man or adult man, completely devoid of any individual physical or mental characteristics.

3.5. VASE PAINTING

The most widespread and accessible type of archaic Greek art was, of course, vase painting. In their work, aimed at the widest consumer, master vase painters depended much less than sculptors or architects on the canons consecrated by religion or the state. Therefore, their art was much more dynamic, diverse and quickly responded to all sorts of artistic discoveries and experiments. Probably, this explains the extraordinary thematic diversity characteristic of the Greek vase painting of the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. It was in vase painting, earlier than in any other branch of Greek art, with the possible exception of coroplasty and bone carving, that mythological scenes began to alternate with episodes of a genre character.

4. GREEK CULTURE IN THE 5TH CENTURY BC

As in other areas of life, in the culture of the 5th century. BC. there is a combination of traditional features dating back to the archaic and even earlier eras, and completely different ones, generated by new phenomena in the socio-economic and political spheres. The birth of the new did not mean the death of the old. Just as in cities the construction of new temples was very rarely accompanied by the destruction of old ones, so in other areas of culture the old receded, but usually did not disappear completely. The most important new factor, which has had the most significant impact on the course of cultural evolution in this century, is the consolidation and development of the polis, especially the democratic one. But there were also Greco-Persian wars, which caused an upsurge in general Greek patriotism, the Peloponnesian War had a certain impact on the development of culture, which gave rise to a sense of hopelessness and despair among a number of representatives of the intellectual elite.

4.1. RELIGION

In the first half of the 5th c. BC e. there are important changes in the religious ideology of the Greeks. Unfortunately, they are little known to us and are reflected most often in literary works. The rise of the classical polis, the victory over the Persians had important consequences for the popular outlook. Modern researchers note the growth of religiosity among the Greeks.

From the point of view of traditional ideas, in the war with the Persians, their deities also fought on the side of the Greeks, which, in particular, Herodotus mentions. The second important circumstance connected with the rise of the classical polis is the feeling of historical optimism, which was also reflected in the religious consciousness. The most important feature The next, "Periclovian" period was the strengthening, at least in Athens, of the trend towards a complete merger within the framework of a single pantheon of polis and folk deities. The most ancient deities of Attica, Athena and Poseidon, are now revered jointly both on the Athenian Acropolis and on Cape Sunius. The cult of Athena is being strengthened (see Fig. 7). The influence of the cult of Dionysus is growing, in which democratic rice is clearly traced. 7 Statue of the goddess Athena. some trends (see Figure 8). The prestige of the Hellenic sanctuaries at Olympia and Delphi is still great, but the importance of Delos is somewhat decreasing after it was completely under the rule of Athens.

Last third of the 5th c. BC e. allows us to speak about a certain crisis in the religious consciousness of the Greeks, which had several reasons. The most severe disasters that befell the Hellenic world during the years of the Peloponnesian War broke the spirit of optimism that prevailed in previous years, and at the same time undermined faith in the goodness of the gods - the guarantors of the existing order. The second important reason for the crisis is the complication of the nature of society, its social structure, which ceased to correspond to traditional religious ideas, ascending fig. 8 Hermes with Dionysus

to deep antiquity. Among the causes - and at the same time the results - of the spiritual crisis should be called the criticism of traditional ideas and institutions of society, including religion, by the sophists. Sophistic ideas spread most of all among the top of society. At the same time, the scale and depth of this crisis cannot be exaggerated. It was in the midst of the decline of old ideas that new religious ideas were born. In particular, at this time, the idea of ​​​​a personal connection between a person and a deity becomes popular. We meet it, for example, in Euripides, who, in general, had a very negative attitude towards traditional views. The importance of new cults is growing, for example, the god of healing Asclepius. Some old cults are being revived due to changes in their functions. The decline of traditional beliefs leads to the widespread penetration into Hellas of foreign cults, Thracian and Asian. The religious consciousness of the era is also characterized by the spread of mysticism.

4.2. PHILOSOPHY

In the philosophy of the V century. BC e. natural philosophy remained the leading direction. The most prominent representatives of the spontaneous-materialistic natural philosophy of this time are Heraclitus of Ephesus, Anaxagoras and Empedocles. Philosophers of the 5th century BC e. the main attention was paid to the search for the primary element. Heraclitus, for example, saw him on fire. According to Anaxagoras, the world was originally a motionless mixture, consisting of the smallest particles ("seeds"), to which the mind (nus) gave movement. Anaxagora's concept of the mind meant a radical opposition of the source of motion to inert matter; it had a significant impact on the further development of philosophical thought (the idea of ​​the "primary impulse" in the philosophy of modern times). Empedocles saw four primary elements (he called them "the roots of all things"): fire, air, earth and water. The theory of four elements, thanks to its perception by Aristotle, remained the foundation of European physics until the 17th century. BC e.

Ancient Greek materialism reached its peak in the teachings of Leucippus of Miletus and Democritus of Abdera. Leucippus laid the foundations of atomistic philosophy. His student Democritus not only accepted the cosmological theory of his teacher, but expanded and refined it, creating a universal philosophical system. Democritus threw the world a great word - the atom. For the first time in the history of philosophy, Democritus created a detailed theory of knowledge, the starting point of which is sensory experience. A large place in the teachings of Democritus was occupied by social and ethical problems. He considered democracy to be the best form of government, and serene wisdom to be the highest virtue. The materialistic philosophy of Democritus had a huge impact on the development of European philosophy and the natural sciences.

From the middle of the 5th c. BC e. a decisive turn takes place in the spiritual life of Greece: henceforth, the center of philosophy is not the world, but man. Sophists (from the Greek word "sophos" - "wise") played a significant role in this spiritual upheaval. The emergence of the sophistic movement is associated with a general complication of the structure of society, which has found its expression both in an increase in the number of socio-professional groups, the emergence of a layer of professional political figures, and in an increase in the amount of specific knowledge necessary for successful political activity. Another reason for the birth of the sophistic movement is the logic of the internal development of knowledge itself. The stronger the gap between natural philosophy and real knowledge became, the greater became public skepticism about natural philosophy. The sophists became the spokesmen for this skepticism.

Socrates acted as an irreconcilable enemy of the sophists in Athens, although from the point of view everyday consciousness(as, for example, it is reflected in Aristophanes) Socrates himself is not only a sophist, but even their leader. Socrates was, most likely, not a philosopher, but a folk sage who opposed the sophists, but who accepted everything positive that their teaching contained. Socrates did not create his own school, although he was constantly surrounded by students. The views of Socrates reflected some new phenomena in the life of Greek society, primarily Athenian. He emphasized the need for professional knowledge for success in any area of ​​life,

4.3. SEPARATION OF SCIENCES

5th century BC e. can be considered the time of the birth of science as a special field of activity. Natural philosophy of the archaic era and the first half of the 5th century. BC e. in essence, it represented a kind of synthetic science, in which both general cosmogonic constructions and observations and conclusions of a more particular nature, belonging to individual scientific disciplines, merged. However, ancient Greek science could preserve such a character only up to a certain level. The expansion of the sphere of knowledge, the increase in its sum, led not only to the branching off of natural philosophy of individual sciences, but also (sometimes) to conflict between them.

A) medicine.

Particularly indicative is the progress in medicine, associated primarily with the activities of Hippocrates. It would be a great mistake to assume, as is sometimes done today, that Greek medicine originated in the sanctuaries. In Greece, in the era of rationalism, there were two medical traditions: the medicine of spells, dreams, signs and miracles in the orbit of the sanctuaries, and the medical art, independent and entirely secular, to which Hippocrates belonged. They were parallel, but completely different from each other. In the "Hippocratic Collection" one can distinguish the treatises of three large groups of doctors. There are doctors-theorists, philosophers-lovers of speculative speculation. They are opposed by the doctors of the Knidos school, who have such a great respect for facts that they are unable to go beyond them. Finally, in the third group - and Hippocrates and his students belong to it, that is, the Cossian school - there are doctors who, based on observation, proceeding from it and only from it, persistently strive to interpret and understand it. These three schools are equally opposed to the medicine of the sanctuaries. But only the Kos school founded medicine as a science.

B) Mathematics.

During the 5th century BC e. mathematics turns into an independent scientific discipline, freeing itself from the influence of the Pythagoreans and becoming the subject of professional activity of scientists who did not adjoin any philosophical direction. Important for the development of mathematics was the creation of a deductive method (a logical conclusion of consequences from a small number of initial premises). The progress of mathematical knowledge is especially noticeable in arithmetic, geometry, and stereometry. Significant advances in astronomy also belong to this time. Anaxagoras was the first scientist to give a correct explanation of solar and lunar eclipses.

C) historiography.

Only in relation to the V century. BC e. one can also speak of the birth of historiography: the Ionian logographs are being replaced by historians. The pinnacle of Greek historiography was the strictly rational work of Thucydides. Herodotus, whom Cicero called the "father of history", can be considered a transitional link from logographs to Thucydides. The main theme of Herodotus' "History" is the Greco-Persian wars.

The theme of Thucydides' work was the history of the Peloponnesian War - this is contemporary history. Only at the very beginning does he give in a very brief form a general outline of the history of Hellas from ancient times, all other content is strictly limited to the task at hand. Thucydides consciously opposed his method to that of his predecessors, the logographers and Herodotus. He can be considered the founder of historical criticism. Thucydides sees his task in creating a true history of the Peloponnesian War. History, from the point of view of Thucydides, is not a mechanistic process, cognizable on the basis of logical analysis, because blind forces also act (natural events, unforeseen coincidence of circumstances - in a word, everything that is embraced by the concept of "blind chance"). The interaction of the rational and the irrational forms the real historical process. significant role assigns Thucydides to prominent political figures, emphasizing their ability to recognize the direction of the historical process and act in accordance with it.

4.4. GREEK LITERATURE IN THE FIFTH CENTURY BC

The beginning of the century sees the decline of choral lyrics - that genre of literature that dominated the archaic era; at the same time, Greek tragedy was born - the genre of literature most fully corresponding to the spirit of the classical policy (see Fig. 9). This early Attic tragedy of the late 6th and early 5th centuries. was not yet a drama in the full sense of the word. It was one of the offshoots of choral lyrics, but differed in two essential features: 1) in addition to the choir, there was an actor who made a message to the choir, exchanged remarks with the choir or with its leader (coryphaeus); rice. 9 Tragic Mask

while the chorus did not leave the scene, the actor left, returned, made new messages to the chorus about what was happening behind the scenes and, if necessary, could change his appearance, playing the roles of different people in his various parishes; 2) the choir took part in the game, depicting a group of persons put in a plot connection with those who were represented by the actor. The quantitative parts of the actor were still very insignificant, and he, nevertheless, was the bearer of the dynamics of the game, since the lyrical moods of the choir changed depending on his messages.

Aristocratic in origin, ideas, method of expression, choral lyrics pass into the 5th century. BC e. from the previous one, represented by such recognized masters as Simonides of Ceos and Pindar from Thebes - the last and most striking singer of the Greek aristocracy (he himself came from a Theban aristocratic family). Pindar's style is distinguished by solemnity, pomp, richness of exquisite images and epithets, often retaining a connection with the figurative system of folklore.

Most of the poems of Pindar's rival Bacchilids that have come down to us also belong to the epinician genre. In the work of Bacchilids, one can clearly see the desire to adapt the traditional genre to new tasks, new conditions of life. The strict aristocracy of Pindar is alien to him. His praises are interesting, in which individual episodes of myths are lyrically developed.

4.5. THEATER OF ANCIENT GREECE

The theater occupied a special place in the life of the Greeks and in many ways was not like the modern one (see Fig. 10). In Athens, theatrical performances took place initially once a year (then twice), during the feast of the god Dionysus (Great Dionysus).

Fig. 10 This amphitheater in Epidaurus is a holiday of the beginning of spring, which at the same time marked the opening of navigation after the winter winds, when performances were going on for three days from morning to evening, which were then discussed throughout the year. The theater, unlike choral lyrics, is addressed to the entire demos, it is more democratic, it serves as a platform from which those who seek to convince the demos of the correctness of their own ideas and thoughts address the demos. The theater became a true educator of the people, it formed the views and beliefs of free citizens. The theatrical spectacle was massive, the audience was most of the citizens, the organization of performances is one of the most important and honorable liturgies; since the time of Pericles, the state has given money to the poorest citizens to pay for tickets. Theatrical performances were competitive in nature, plays by several authors were staged, and a jury elected from citizens determined the winner.

4.6. ART AND ARCHITECTURE

According to the most common periodization of the history of Greek fine arts and architecture of the 5th century BC. BC e. It is customary to divide into two large periods: the art of the early classics, or strict style, and the art of high, or developed, classics.

A) The art of the early classics.

The art of this period is illuminated by the ideas of the liberation struggle against the Persians and the triumph of the policy. The heroic character and increased attention to the human citizen, who created a world where he is free and where his dignity is respected, distinguishes the art of the early classics. The two types of figures that previously dominated sculpture - kuros and kore - are being replaced by a much greater variety of types; sculptures tend to convey the complex movement of the human body. In architecture, the classical type of the peripteral temple and its sculptural decoration are being formed.

Landmarks in the development of early classical architecture and sculpture were such buildings as the treasury of the Athenians in Delphi, the temple of Athena Aphaia on about. Aegina, the so-called temple of E at Selinunte and the temple of Zeus at Olympia. The task of the classics was to depict a person in motion. The master of the pores of the early classics took the first step towards great realism, towards the depiction of personality, and it is natural that this process began with the solution of an easier task - the transfer of the movement of the human body. The following, more difficult task fell to the share of high classics - to convey the movements of the soul.

For vase painting of this time, the most characteristic is no longer following painting in the field of stylistics, but independent development. In search of visual means, vase painters not only followed monumental art, but, as representatives of the most democratic form of art, they overtook it in some ways, depicting scenes from real life. In the same decades, the black-figure style declined and the red-figure style flourished, when the natural color of clay was preserved for the figures, while the space between them was filled with black lacquer.

B) Art of the High Classics.

The art of high classics is a clear continuation of what arose earlier, but there is one area where a fundamentally new one is being born at this time - urbanism. Although the accumulation of experience and some empirically found principles of urban planning was the result of the creation of new cities during the period of the Great Colonization, it was during the time of the high classics that the theoretical generalization of this experience, the creation of an integral concept and its implementation in practice. The birth of urban planning as a theoretical and practical discipline that combines artistic and utilitarian goals is associated with the name of Hippodames of Miletus.

The temple was still the leading type of building. Temples of the Doric order are being actively built in the Greek West: several temples in Agrigentum, among which stands out the so-called temple of Concordia (in fact, Hera Argeia), considered the best of the Dorian temples in Italy.

The architecture of the high classics is characterized by a striking proportion, combined with a festive monumentality. Continuing the traditions of the previous time, the architects at the same time did not slavishly follow the canons, they boldly looked for new means to enhance the expressiveness of the structures they created, most fully reflecting the ideas embedded in them. During the construction of the Parthenon, in particular, Iktin and Kallikrat boldly went to combine the features of the Doric and Ionic orders in one building (see Fig. 11). The Erechtheion is extremely peculiar - the only temple in Greek architecture with an absolutely asymmetrical plan. The solution of one of its porticos is also original, where the columns are replaced by six figures of caryatid girls.

In sculpture, the art of high classics is associated primarily with the work of Myron, Phidias and Polykleitos. Miron completed the search for the masters of the previous time, who sought to convey the movement of a person in sculpture. Phidias became famous for his sculptures of deities, especially Zeus and Athena. In the 60s, Phidias creates a colossal statue of Athena Promachos, which towered in the center of the Acropolis. The ideal citizen of the policy - fig. 11 The marble building of the Parthenon is the main theme of the work of another sculptor of this time - Polykleitos from Argos. The most famous is his statue of Doryphoros (a young man with a spear), which the Greeks considered an exemplary work. Doryphorus Polikleitos is the embodiment of a physically and spiritually perfect person.

Unfortunately, we know almost nothing about the great Greek artists (Apollodorus, Zeuxis, Parrhasius), except for a description of some of their paintings and information about their skill. According to ancient authors, Apollodorus of Athens discovered at the end of the 5th century. BC e. the effect of chiaroscuro, i.e. laid the foundation for painting in the modern sense of the word. Parrasius strove to convey spiritual movements by means of painting.

5. GREECE IN THE IV CENTURY BC

5.1 PHILOSOPHY

A) Plato, Aristotle.

4th century BC e. turned out to be a very fruitful period for the development of culture, especially philosophy, oratory. At this time, the two most famous philosophical systems were created - Plato and Aristotle. Plato (426-347 BC) belonged to a famous aristocratic family in Athens. His philosophical concept turned out to be closely intertwined with socio-political views. In the treatises "State" and "Laws" Plato created a model of an ideal policy with a carefully developed estate system, strict control of the top of society over the activities of the lower classes. He considered the correct interpretation of the concept of virtue, justice to be the basis of the correct construction of the state, therefore, philosophers, people with knowledge, should have been at the head of the policy.

No less popular was the teaching of Aristotle (384-322 BC), a philosopher who had long and strong ties with the Macedonian court. A student of Plato, Aristotle was engaged in scientific research and teaching at the Lyceum gymnasium in Athens. Aristotle went down in history primarily as a scientist-encyclopedist. His legacy is a real body of knowledge accumulated by Greek science by the 4th century BC. BC e .: according to some reports, the number of works written by him approached a thousand. Aristotle, unlike his teacher, believed that the material world is primary, and the world of ideas is secondary, that form and content are inseparable from each other as two sides of one phenomenon. The doctrine of nature appears in his treatises primarily as a doctrine of motion, and this is one of the most interesting and strong points of Aristotle's system. He is considered an outstanding representative of dialectics, which was for him a method of obtaining true and reliable knowledge from probable and plausible knowledge. The scientist also acted as a historian, teacher, theoretician of eloquence, creator of ethical and political doctrine.

B) The teachings of the Cynics.

In the same period, Antisthenes (450-360 BC) and Diogenes of Sinop (died c. 330-320 BC) laid the foundations for the philosophical teachings of the Cynics, which flourished at a later time. Cynics 4th c. BC e. opposed themselves to traditional forms of life and the establishment of the policy, taught to limit needs. The foundations of correct behavior, in their opinion, should be sought in the life of animals and in the early stages of human society.

5.2. HISTORIANS OF GREECE IN THE 4TH CENTURY

The historical genre was represented, first of all, by the famous historian Xenophon, a native of Athens (428-354 BC). The main historical work of Xenophon, "Greek History", chronologically continues the work of Thucidus, covering the period from the end of the Peloponnesian War to the Battle of Mantinea, and serves as one of the main sources for the history of the 4th century BC. BC e. The main drawback of Xenophon's work is conscious bias: he reshapes history to his liking, creating a generally distorted picture, because some events are simply hushed up, others that are quite important, he speaks in passing, and inflates others in every possible way. Xenophon is also known as the author of treatises on the life and philosophy of Socrates, military memoirs, works on the economy and organization of the economy, a study on tyranny, and special works on cavalry and hunting.

In addition to the work of Xenophon, from historical works 4th century BC e. excerpts from the "Oxyrhynchus History" by an unknown author, describing the events of the 90s, have come down. The manuscript got its name from the place of discovery - the city of Oksyrhynchus in Egypt. The few surviving fragments make it impossible to get an idea of ​​the composition of the work and the principles of its construction. One can definitely speak only of a very detailed presentation of events and a discrepancy in the description of facts with Xenophon.

The works of other historians of this period have not survived, only a few scattered passages have survived; the names of the authors and the titles of the works came down in the transmission of other writers.

5.3. ORATORY.

Greece 4th century BC e. gave a galaxy of brilliant speakers. The beginning of the cultivation of the spoken word was laid by the sophists, who, being themselves outstanding masters of eloquence, taught others this art. They founded schools where, for a fee, everyone could learn the rules for constructing a speech, the proper manner of pronouncing it, and the effective presentation of the material.

There are two main types of speeches - political and judicial. Political speeches were recognized as the highest achievement of oratory, and among them deliberative speeches were considered the most important, that is, devoted to the discussion of specific issues that required the adoption of specific measures. Of the representatives of the older generation of speakers, Antiphon, Andocides and Gorgias were the most famous. Socrates (436-338 BC) was also an outstanding speaker, his ancient biographers numbered up to 60 speeches belonging to him, only a third have survived to this day. Demosthenes (384-322 BC) also left a memory of himself as an outstanding orator. Two orators glorified themselves not in the political, but in the judicial field. Lysias (459-380 BC), liveliness of the image, good knowledge of the laws, amazing, according to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, elegance of speech provided him with invariable victories in legal proceedings. The long and frequent practice of speaking, the appearance of brilliant and famous orators could not pass without leaving a mark on theoretical thought. In the IV century. BC e. A fundamental study devoted to eloquence appeared - Aristotle's "Rhetoric". It gives such an interesting and deep analysis of the art of persuasion that many centuries later, in our day, propaganda specialists find ideas there that were considered the achievement of only a new time.

5.4. LITERATURE

During this period, oratory, philosophy, historical writings took a leading place in literature, clearly crowding out other genres - drama and lyrics. Although theaters continued to flourish, even new ones were built, and the audience willingly visited them, tastes have changed significantly. The moral foundations of life, acute political and social conflicts, the problems of good and evil in the private and public spheres attracted less and less attention. The interests of people have narrowed significantly, focused on private life. A clear decline is also observed in the lyrics. 4th century BC e. gave only one famous lyricist - Timothy of Miletus, from whose poetic heritage only fragments have been preserved. He enjoyed great popularity in Hellas, is mentioned with praise by Plato and Aristotle.

5.5. ART

Similar processes took place in art. 4th century BC e. usually regarded as the time of the late classics, the period of transition to the art of Hellenism.

A) architecture.

It is indicative that after the Peloponnesian War, monumental construction was not only reduced, but its centers also moved: instead of Attica, they became the Peloponnese and Asia Minor. Pausanias, who left a description of the most famous monuments of Greece, considered the temple of Athena Alea in Tegea to be the most beautiful building in the Peloponnese, replacing the old one that burned down in 394. It was built and decorated by the famous master Skopas. Contemporaries were interested in the layout of Megalopolis, a city built by the Arcadians as the center of the Arcadian Union.

Architecture began to take on a slightly different character: if earlier temple buildings played a leading role in it, now more attention has been paid to civil architecture - theaters,

rice. 12 The palaestras of the meeting rooms, palaestras, and gymnasiums were destroyed (see fig. 12). New trends in architecture were also expressed in the desire to create a common Hellenic style - koine; the same unification took place here as in the language. The outstanding architects of this time included Philo, Scopas, Polykleitos the Younger, Pytheas.

The rise was experienced by the architecture of small forms, which has much in common with sculpture. Its typical example is the monument to the head of the choir Lysicrates, built by him in Athens after winning the competition in 335. Such structures were usually erected at private expense.

B) Sculpture.

New demands began to be made to sculpture. If in the previous period it was considered necessary to create an abstract embodiment of certain physical and spiritual qualities, an average image, now the sculptors showed attention to a particular person, his individuality. There was a search for means to convey the shades of the movement of the soul, mood, beauty and spirituality of a person, the desire to show the diversity of characters. The greatest success in this was achieved by Scopas, Praxiteles, Lysippus, Timothy, Briaxides.

B) painting.

On painting in the 4th century BC e. can be judged mainly from the information preserved by ancient authors. Judging by them, she reached a high level not only in practice, but also in theory. Such paintings were widely known by the founder of the Sicyon school, Eumolpus, whose student, Pamphilus, created a treatise on artistic skill. The tendencies of Scopas were close to the artist Aristide the Elder, one of whose paintings depicted a mother dying on the battlefield, to whose breast a child reaches. The work of Nikias "Perseus and Andromeda" is copied on one of the frescoes in Pompeii. This artist was highly valued by Praxiteles, trusting him to tint his marble statues. In the IV century. BC e. the art of small forms flourished, marked by grace and grace. It is glorified by the terracotta masters of Tanagra. Vase painting, on the contrary, entered a period of decline: the compositions became too complicated, the pomp of the decor increased, and negligence appeared in the drawing. In general, the art of this period is regarded by researchers as a time of fundamental shifts, intensive searches, the emergence of trends that ended in the Hellenistic era.

Conclusion.

It is customary to divide the entire history of ancient Greece into two large eras: 1) Mycenaean civilization and 2) ancient civilization. A characteristic feature of early Greek culture was the amazing unity of its style, clearly marked by originality, vitality and humanity. Man occupied significant place in the worldview of this society; moreover, the artists paid attention to representatives of various professions and social strata, inner world each character. The peculiarity of the culture of early Hellas is reflected in the surprisingly harmonious combination of the motives of nature and the requirements of style, which are found in the works of its best masters of art. And if initially artists, especially Cretan ones, strove more for embellishment, then already from the 17th-16th centuries. BC e. Creativity of Hellas is full of vitality. I want to note that Greek culture is characterized by a certain traditional character, the preservation of a number of concepts, for example, the motif of a running spiral, preserved from the culture of the North Balkan tribes of the Neolithic era, “Pillars of Heaven” in Thessaly, which received magnificent development in the Cycladic art of the III millennium BC. e. and repeatedly reproduced in the II millennium BC. e. in the ornamentation not only of the monumental royal tholoses, but also in the decor of household items, especially dishes.

In the XXX-XII centuries. BC e. Greece's population has gone through a difficult path of economic, political and spiritual development. This period of history is characterized by an intensive growth of production, which created conditions in a number of regions of the country for the transition from the primitive communal to the early class system. The parallel existence of these two social systems determined the originality of the history of Greece in the Bronze Age. It should be noted that many achievements of the Hellenes of that time were the basis of the brilliant culture of the Greeks of the classical era and, together with it, entered the treasury of European culture.

Then, for several centuries, called the "Dark Ages" (XI-IX centuries BC), in their development, the peoples of Hellas, for reasons unknown so far, can be said to be thrown back to the primitive communal system.

The "Dark Ages" are followed by the Archaic period - this is the time of the emergence, first of all, of writing (based on Phoenician), then philosophy: mathematics, natural philosophy, then the extraordinary wealth of lyric poetry, etc. The Greeks, skillfully using the achievements of the previous cultures of Babylon, Egypt , create their own art, which had a huge impact on all subsequent stages of European culture. During the archaic period, a well-thought-out and clear system of architectural forms was gradually created, which became the basis for all further development of Greek architecture. Nothing is known about the monumental painting of the archaic period. Obviously, it existed, but for some reason it was not preserved. But we can judge vase painting, which, unlike many other arts, is much more dynamic, diverse and responds faster to all kinds of artistic discoveries and experiments. Thus, the period of the archaic can be called the period of a sharp leap in the cultural development of Greece.

The archaic period is followed by the classical period (V-IV centuries BC). In the philosophy of the V century. BC e. the main direction is natural philosophy, materialistic at its core, and Pythagoreanism, which opposes it. But the more it breaks away from real knowledge, the greater is the public skepticism towards natural philosophy, which the sophists became the spokesmen for. The emergence of the sophistic movement is associated with a general complication of the structure of society. They played a big role in the spiritual upheaval in Greek society in the middle of the 5th century. BC e., as a result of which the center of philosophy is not the world, but man.

End of the 5th-4th century. BC e. - the period of the stormy spiritual life of Greece, the formation of the idealistic ideas of Socrates and Plato, which developed in the struggle against the materialistic philosophy of Democritus, and the emergence of the teachings of the Cynics.

Describing the culture of Greece as a whole, it should be noted that a step forward was made in politics, science and art. The culture created by the Greeks occupies a very special place in the heritage on which human civilization relies in its subsequent historical development. It is no coincidence that in philosophy, as in many other areas of culture, we will constantly turn to the exploits of that small people, whose universal talent and activity ensured for them such a place in the history of the development of mankind. I believe that we can rightfully call the culture of Ancient Greece the cradle of European culture.

Bibliography

1. André Bonnard, Greek Civilization, ed. "Art" 1992, books I-III;

2. Bonnar A. Greek civilization, vol. 1, 2. - Rostov-on-Don, "Phoenix", 1994

3. Vernip Zh. N. The origin of ancient Greek thought. M., 1988.

4. Hans Reichard, The Ancient Greeks, translated from German by B.I. Zaleskoy, ed. Word 1994

5. Gordienko A. N., Duda M. Yu., All history for schoolchildren, ed. Minsk modern writer 2005

6. "History of Europe", ed. "Science", 1988, v.1 "Ancient Europe";

7. History of world culture (world civilizations), tutorial for universities - Rostov-on-Don, "Phoenix", 2004.

8. Cassidy F.Kh., "From myth to logos", M., 1972;

9. Kolpinsky Yu. L. The great heritage of ancient Hellas. M., 1988.

10. Levak P. Hellenistic world. M 1989.

11. Losev A.F., Takho-Godi A.A., from the series "Life of Remarkable People" - "Plato, Aristotle", ed. "Young Guard" 1993;

12. Louis Bourgeay, "Observation and experience with doctors" Hippocratic collection ", 1953

13. Mason E. Ancient civilizations. – M.: Oniks, 1997.

14. Nersyants V.S., "Socrates", ed. "Science", 1984;

15. Plato, "Politics or the State", translated from the Greek by Karpov, part III, 1863;

16. Sokolova M.V. World culture and art: a textbook for university students - M: Publishing Center "Academy", 2004.

17. Susan Peach, Ann Millard "Greeks" translated from English by N.V. Belousova, M., 1998

18. Tronsky I. M., "History of Ancient Literature", ed. UCHPEDGIZ, 1947;

Many of us have heard, listened to and read the myths of Ancient Greece, about heroes and monsters, about gods and deeds, about Olympus and about fire. It is Greece that is rightfully considered the cradle of all Western European civilization.

Greek cuisine: moussaka, olives, feta cheese and wine This is an amazing country in which every city is filled with myths and legends. It is a country with a long history and rich cultural heritage. This country with a wonderful climate is a heavenly protected area, which is worth visiting at least once in a lifetime in order to be able to fully enjoy the excellent local culture, communication with the local population, getting to know national dishes and other important moments.

The culture of Ancient Greece gave rise to common cultural values ​​in literally all areas of spiritual and material activity of mankind. Only three generations of cultural figures of Ancient Greece created the art of high classics, laid the foundations of European civilization and role models for many millennia. Having mastered the cultural experience of Egypt and Babylon, Ancient Greece determined its own path both in the socio-political development of society and in philosophical search and artistic and aesthetic understanding of the world.

I want to come to Greece, and for those who have visited once, come back here again and again, and it does not matter to mainland Greece or to the cozy Greek islands, here you will find gentle clear sea, the best beaches, the most healthy and wholesome cuisine, congenial and by faith very hospitable friendly and hospitable people.

Greece is ideal for a holiday from May to October, although the rest of the time there is always something to do and see. A huge number of relics on the territory of the country will help awaken in your mind a real interest in the history of mankind. Wonderful climate, warm sea, European service, excellent cuisine will leave the most pleasant memories.

Do you know what the secret of Greek cheerfulness and longevity is? In the ability to relax: from the heart, sincerely, enchantingly and contagiously. No wonder the term "rest in Greek" means a completely successful, prosperous and varied holiday in Greece, where every season reveals its own charm to travelers, gives the delight of discoveries and unforgettable impressions. For example, a holiday in Greece in the winter is not inferior to the usual trip in the summer season. It just becomes different: ski resorts, various excursion programs, pilgrimage - this is not all that Greece can boast of. Tourism in this amazing country does not stop developing, which is tirelessly taken care of by the local government, investing a lot of money in the industry, realizing the importance of this direction

Well, now let's look at some of the nuances, for the general development

Geography: Greece is located on the Balkan Peninsula in southeastern Europe. In the north it borders with Albania, Macedonia and Bulgaria, and in the east with Turkey. The southern shores are washed by the Mediterranean Sea, the western - by the Ionian and the eastern - by the Aegean. One fifth of Greece lies on the islands, numbering about a thousand. The largest of them are Crete, Rhodes, Corfu, Lesvos, Samos. Due to the large number of islands, Greece has a particularly long coastline (15.020 km), which is the longest of any Mediterranean country.

Climate: Mild, Mediterranean. The average temperature in January is +4 + 12 ° C, in July + 27 + 30 ° C. The swimming season on the mainland of Greece begins in mid-May and ends in mid-September. The average sea temperature in July is + 25 ° C. The holiday season on the islands begins earlier and lasts from April to mid-October.

The beach season in this country lasts from March to October.

Time: 1 hour behind Moscow.

Flight: The duration of the flight from St. Petersburg to Greece is 3.5 - 4 hours.

political system: Greece - republic. The head of state is the president.

Capital: Athens

Population: about 10.7 million people.

Language: Greek.

Religion: 98% Greek Orthodox Church..

Ground public transport in large cities is represented by buses and trolleybuses. Tickets are sold at newsstands or at the final stops. If a passenger is standing at a stop and sees an approaching bus of the desired route, he must vote, otherwise the driver will not stop.

You can rent a car at a car rental office (rent a car) or contact a travel agency. Vehicles are allowed for persons over 21 years of age. At the same time, in addition to the rights of international standard, you must have at least a year of driving experience.

Objectives: to form students' ideas about the state of Ancient Greece; characterize the main features of Greek culture, art and religious beliefs; to educate, by means of the subject, a sense of beauty.

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Greece - "the cradle of European civilization" Religion of the Greeks A walk along the Athenian Acropolis In search of a man

Religion of the Greeks How often, with a yearning soul, I madly rush into your wonderful ancient world, Holy Greece! M. Mikhailov One of characteristic features The artistic culture of ancient Greece was a reflection in it of mythological ideas about the phenomena of nature and human life. The fantasy and vivid imagination of the Greeks populated the world with omnipotent gods and courageous heroes, whom they worshiped and whom they revered sacredly.

The Greek gods Have a human appearance, they, like people, suffer from grief, and rejoice in the delights of life, fall in love and hate fiercely. People erect temples and colossal statues to them, compose hymns, dedicate unique literary works

Gods of Egypt Gods of Greece Zoomorphic depiction of the gods Different depictions of the same god The gods do not interfere in people's lives Anthropomorphic depiction of the gods God is endowed with one name The gods are actively involved in people's lives

Walk on the Acropolis PROPYLEIA

A walk along the Acropolis The highest achievements of ancient Greek architecture are associated with the ensemble of the Acropolis The day will be forever dear to me, When I, the Propylaea, Under your marble canopy, That the foam of the waves of the sea is whiter Temple of Nike Apteros (Wingless)

Acropolis Athena Promachos (Almighty) Patroness of Athens and all the people The night looked into my face. Black cypress branches. And at the feet, having rolled up the ring, Sleeps the theater of Dionysus.

Walk on the Acropolis TEMPLE ERECHTHEION

In Search of Man Greek art is imbued with love for man. The philosopher Diogenes walked around the city in broad daylight with a lantern in search of .... MAN. The ideal embodied in itself: Spiritual beauty youth charm health The whole history of Greek art is the search for the ideal PERSON

Greece is the birthplace of democracy, Western philosophy, the basic principles of physical and mathematical sciences, theater, the modern Olympic Games ... Plus, a favorable climate, warm seas washing the country, a peculiar landscape - all this makes Greece one of the most visited countries in the world.

The official name of the country - Hellenic Republic. But the Greeks themselves call their country Hellas. The words "Greece" and "Greek" are used by them only in communication with foreigners.
The country is located on the Balkan Peninsula and numerous islands. It is washed by 4 seas: Aegean, Ionian, Mediterranean and Cretan. It borders with Albania, the Republic of Macedonia, Bulgaria and Turkey.

State symbols of Greece

Flag- a rectangular panel consisting of nine equal horizontal alternating stripes of blue and white. Inside the blue square in the upper left corner is a white straight cross. Flag adopted March 27, 1822

Coat of arms- consists of two main elements - an azure shield with a silver cross (a fragment of the flag), and around the shield - a laurel wreath. The shield with a cross symbolizes military glory and the main Greek religion - Orthodoxy. The laurel wreath symbolizes ancient history Greece: these wreaths were awarded to the winners of the ancient Olympic Games.
Officially, the coat of arms of the Hellenic Republic is depicted in a two-color version using azure (visually blue) and silver (visually white) colors. The coat of arms with a golden laurel wreath is used by the Greek armed forces. The multicolor version of the coat of arms is intended for civilian use.

Brief information about the country

Capital- Athens.
Largest cities- Athens, Thessaloniki, Piraeus.
Official language- Greek.
Form of government- parliamentary republic.
head of state And Supreme Commander- the president. Elected for a term of 5 years.
Chief Executive- Prime Minister.
Territory- 131,957 km².
Population- 10 787 690 people 61% of the population lives in cities.
State religion- orthodoxy.
Currency- Euro.
Economy. The industrial sector is dominated by high technology equipment manufacturing, especially in the field of telecommunications. Other important industries include textiles, chemicals, building materials, machinery, transport equipment and electrical appliances. A significant proportion of Greece's income comes from tourism.
Agriculture- is only 7% of GDP.
Education Compulsory for all children aged 6 to 15 years. Includes primary (6 grades) and incomplete secondary (gymnasium, 3 grades) education. Exist preschool institutions: nursery gardens (for children from 2.5 years old) and kindergartens. There is a system of vocational education, technical schools; higher education is carried out by universities and institutes of technical education. The creation of non-state higher educational institutions in the country is prohibited.
Climate– different in different parts of the country. Mediterranean (with mild winters and hot dry summers) - in the central part of Greece, in the eastern part of the Peloponnese. Alpine - in mountainous areas, temperate (with cold, wet winters and hot, dry summers) - in Eastern Macedonia and Thrace.

Sights of Greece

Especially popular in Greece are historical and cultural centers Athens, Delphi, Corfu island, Crete.
Beach recreation centers- peninsula Chalkidiki, Mykonos, Santorini, Paros And Crete.
Christian pilgrimage centers - Holy Mount Athos, Meteora monasteries, Byzantine monuments of Thessaloniki(Basilica of St. Demetrius, Basilica of Hagia Sophia and others), which are included in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites. It is with the UNESCO World Heritage Sites that we will begin the story about the sights of Greece.

UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Greece

Temple of Epicurean Apollo at Bassae

“This temple can be considered the first both in terms of the beauty of marble and the thoroughness of work,” wrote the ancient Greek geographer Pausanias. The ruins of this temple are located in the center of the Peloponnese, near the city of Phigalia. Its history is connected with the military operations that took place on the territory of Arcadia. It was built between 450 And 400 years BC. on the slope of Mount Cotillion at an altitude of 1131 m above sea level. The temple is unusual in that it demonstrates examples of three orders of ancient Greek architecture. It is oriented from north to south. The temple was accidentally discovered by a French architect in 1765. The first serious excavations were carried out here in 1836, Karl Bryullov.

athenian acropolis

The elevated and fortified part of the ancient Greek city, the so-called upper city; fortress (shelter in case of war). The Acropolis in Athens is a 156-meter rocky hill with a gentle top.
The first fortifications appeared here long before the onset of the classical period. Already in the archaic times (750 BC - 480 BC) majestic temples, sculptures, various objects of worship were located here. The Acropolis is also called "Kekropia" or "Kekrops" - in honor of Kekrops, who, according to legend, was the first king of Athens and the founder of the Acropolis.

Parthenon- a monument of ancient architecture, an ancient Greek temple located on the Athenian Acropolis, the main temple in ancient Athens, dedicated to the patroness of this city and all of Attica, the goddess Athena the Virgin. Built in 447-438 BC e. architect Kallikrates according to the project of Iktin and decorated in 438-431 BC. e. under the leadership of Phidias under the reign of Pericles. Currently, it is in a dilapidated state, restoration work is underway.

Delphi

One of the oldest cities in Greece, it was famous in the ancient world for the temple of Apollo and the famous oracle, to which pilgrims came for divination. In Delphi, the pan-Greek Pythian Games were held (the second after the Olympic Games, which took place every four years in Delphi).

In the picture: Amphitheater in Delphi, where art competitions were held
According to mythology, Zeus sent two eagles from the ends of the world, and they met on a Pythian rock. This meeting indicated that there was the Navel of the Earth, which was guarded by two Gorgons.

Rhodes

The fourth largest Greek island, with a total area of ​​1398 km², is located in the southeast of Greece. Washed by the Aegean and mediterranean seas. The administrative center is the city of Rhodes.
Rhodes is often referred to as the "Pearl of the Mediterranean". It is rich in natural, archaeological sites and monuments and interesting history. The historical part of the city of Rhodes, the largest settlement of the island, is included in the list of world cultural heritage.

The main defensive structure of the medieval city of Rhodes, the former residence of the Grand Master of the Rhodes Order. The fortress was built by the Knights Hospitallers who owned the island in the Middle Ages. in the 14th century After the Crusaders lost the Holy Land, the residence of the Grand Master of the Order was moved here. According to contemporaries, at the end of the XV century. The fortress of Rhodes was the most modern and impregnable of the Christian fortresses. The Knights Hospitaller defended Rhodes from Muslim attacks for 213 years. The fortress withstood two major sieges: in 1444 and 1480. Due to the impregnability of the knightly stronghold, Rhodes fell 70 years later than Constantinople. It survived earthquakes and sieges, but was destroyed in 1856 by an accidental explosion. The palace was restored by the Italians in the 1930s for Mussolini and King Victor Emmanuel III.

Petaloudes Valley (Butterfly Valley)

One of the most famous attractions of the island of Rhodes. Thousand butterflies bear family flock to the valley from the end of May, after the onset of the dry season, attracted by moisture and coolness, as well as the smell styraxes(large shrub). Due to the influx of tourists, the butterfly population is under threat.

Giant statue of the ancient Greek sun god Helios, which stood in the port city of Rhodes. One of the Seven Wonders of the World. In 305 BC e. Demetrius I of Macedon landed on Rhodes with 40,000 troops. Holding on main city islands under siege for a year, despite the construction of many siege weapons, he was forced to retreat.
The people of Rhodes sold their abandoned siege weapons and built a statue of their revered sun god Helios to thank him for his intercession. Helios was not just a particularly revered deity on the island - according to legend, he was its creator: without a place dedicated to him, solar god carried the island on his hands from the depths of the sea. The sculptor Khares worked for 12 years on the creation of an almost 36-meter bronze giant - it was a tall and slender young god with a radiant crown on his head. He stood on a white marble pedestal, leaning back slightly and peering intently into the distance. The statue of the god stood right at the entrance to the harbor of Rhodes and was visible from the nearest islands. The statue was made of clay, it had a metal frame at its base, and it was covered with bronze sheets on top. Colossus stood for 65 years. In 222 B.C. e. the statue was destroyed by an earthquake.
In November 2008, they announced their intention to reconstruct the statue in the form of a lighting installation. The design will be several times higher than its original - from 60 to 100 meters.

Monasteries of Meteora

One of the largest monastic complexes in Greece, famous for its unique location on the tops of the cliffs. The monastic center was formed around the 10th century and has been in continuous existence ever since. According to the administrative-church division, it is part of the Metropolis of Stagi and Meteor of the Greek Orthodox Church.
Six active Orthodox monasteries are located on the tops of grandiose rocks located on a flat surface of the Thessalian plain. The rocks reach 600 m above sea level and are a rare geological phenomenon. They formed over 60 million years ago and were the rocky bottom of the prehistoric sea, which was in place of the plain. As a result of the impact of water, wind and temperature changes, massive stone pillars appeared, as if suspended in the air, which received the name (from the Greek μετέωρα - “floating in the air”).

According to legend, the first hermits climbed these stony and impregnable cliff tops, cut off from the world. long before the 10th century. According to most researchers, the first hermit was a certain Barnabas, which in 950-970. built the oldest skete of the Holy Spirit. This was followed by the construction of other monasteries.

In the picture: Monastery of St. Nicholas Anapavsas

Athos

Also known as "Holy Mountain". It has the name "Autonomous monastic state of the Holy Mountain." Despite this, it is not an independent state. It is a self-governing community of 20 Orthodox monasteries under the direct ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Constantinople since 1312. It is the largest center of Orthodox monasticism in the world. On Athos, the Julian calendar is used exclusively, including in administrative documents. The population of Athos is about 2.5 thousand people. This place is revered as the earthly Lot of the Mother of God. Entry of women and female animals to Athos is prohibited.

Thessaloniki. Early Christian and Byzantine monuments

Thessaloniki is the second largest city in Greece. Was founded in 315 BC Macedonian king Cassandro. The heyday of the city belongs to the Byzantine era. Since 1430 the city was part of the Ottoman Empire, and after the Balkan wars of 1912-1913. went to Greece.
After a great fire in 1917, a group of architects and urban planners chose the Byzantine period as the basis for the reconstruction of the buildings in the center of Thessaloniki. The center is characterized by many historical buildings, arcades, combinations of different architectural styles, including those of the 20th century: Art Nouveau and Art Deco.

Church of St. Dmitry (V-VII centuries)

An extensive and complex structure 60 m long and 30 m wide. Under its altar part there is an underground church - crypt. For many centuries, this church was destroyed and rebuilt again, as a result of which the appearance of the temple reflects all stages of the history of the monument.

Cathedral of St. Sofia

Cross-domed three-nave Christian church in Thessaloniki. It is an exceptionally rare example of a church iconoclastic period(a religious and political movement in Byzantium in the 8th - early 9th centuries, directed against the veneration of idols. Iconoclasts considered sacred images to be idols, and the cult of icon veneration - idolatry, referring to the Old Testament commandments (“do not make yourself an idol and no image of what is on heaven above ... do not worship them and do not serve them"), combining the features of a cross-domed church and a three-aisled basilica.

Basilica of Our Lady Not Made by Hands (Basilica Achiropiitos)

One of the oldest surviving early Christian basilicas. It was built on the site of the ruins of a Roman building, the marble floors of which were found under the eastern slope of the basilica. It was probably a complex of public baths, part of which was occupied by the church (the eastern and northern parts of the baths continued to be used for their intended purpose after the founding of the temple).
According to the inscriptions made on the bricks used in the construction of the basilica, its construction dates back to 447-448
Interior of the Basilica of Achiropietos

The city is famous for the ruins of the ancient theater and the Temple of Asclepius. Currently, a small fishing settlement is located near the ancient ruins.
The most well-preserved of the ancient Greek theaters, operating and at the same time distinguished by exceptional acoustics and aesthetics. was built between 340 BC e. And 330 BC e. It was discovered after excavations carried out by the archaeologist Panagis Kavadias in 1870. In 1938, the first performances took place in the theater. In the early 50s, restoration work was carried out, and since 1955 a theater festival has been held in Epidaurus, every summer showing performances on the stage of the ancient theater. The Epidaurus Festival has featured some of the greatest Greek and foreign artists, including the renowned Greek opera singer

One of the most important cultural and political centers of the late Byzantine Empire. Capital of the Despotate of Morea. The city has a very complicated and heroic history. Now it's open air museum, world heritage site.
Since the 6th century, the mountainous regions of Taygetus on the Peloponnese peninsula have been inhabited by the Slavic tribes of Milingi and Ezerites. These tribes were distinguished by militancy and disobedience. Repeated attempts by the Byzantine authorities to subjugate them constantly met with resistance.

In the picture: Olympia, ruins
Initially - a settlement in the Greek region of Elis, located in the northwestern part of the Peloponnese. The oldest settlements in this area date back to the Neolithic.
Who founded the Olympic Games in Olympia is unclear. There are three versions in the myths, but the following one prevails: the games were founded by Pelops, who won the chariot competition of the king of letters Enomai. The traditional date for the first Olympics is 776 BC. In the VII-VI centuries. there were long clashes between the Eleans and the Pists for the right to host the Games, the Eleans won this fight. The same era includes the introduction of the Olympic Truce, during which all wars between the Greek policies ceased.

Pictured: Statue of Zeus at Olympia
6th-5th centuries - the heyday of the Games. The famous statue of Zeus by Phidias belongs to the 5th century, as well as the frieze of the Temple of Zeus that has come down to us, and numerous buildings. After that, a gradual decline began. Games gradually lost their religious character and became a pure sport.

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Greek island in the Aegean Sea. According to the myths of ancient Greece, the birth of the gods took place on the island Apollo and Artemis. Since ancient times, Delos has been a sacred place of worship for the Greeks. The island has many attractions, including the temples of Apollo and Dionysus.
The island has preserved many traces of various civilizations of the Aegean world from the 3rd millennium BC. e. until the early Christian period. The archaeological sites of Delos, diverse and very closely concentrated, form the image of a large multinational Mediterranean port.

Monasteries of the Byzantine era

Of the monuments of the Byzantine era in Greece, the most famous are the monasteries of Daphni, Hossios Loukas and Nea Moni.

Daphne (near Athens)

Based in the VI century. on the site of the pagan sanctuary of Apollo Daphnia, which was destroyed by the Goths in 395. Of the Ionic columns of the ancient temple, which were used in the construction of the church, only one has now survived. Remaining in the 19th century were taken to England by Lord Elgin. The monastic cross-domed temple belongs to the best surviving examples of architecture from the era of the Macedonian dynasty and the Middle Byzantine period as a whole. Its construction can be attributed to the first half XI century. Mosaic decoration appeared somewhat later, at the turn of the 12th century.

Osios Loukas (Phocis)

Based in the second half of the X century., famous for its mosaics from the period of the Macedonian dynasty.
The monastery was founded by Reverend by Luka Styriot who settled as a hermit on the slopes of Helikon near 946 g. Soon a monastic community formed around it, and the construction of the first monastery church in the name of St. Barbara began. Luke died in 953 and was buried in his cell, over which a small church was later built. At the beginning of the 11th century. the monastery was decorated with mosaics, a fortress wall was erected around the monastery.

Nea Moni (Chios Island)

Orthodox monastery on the island of Chios, founded in the first half 11th century. The monastery was founded by the Byzantine emperor Constantine IX, his wife Zoya and her sister Theodora. Its construction is connected with the legend that at this place three monks: Nikita, John and Joseph found an icon of the Mother of God on a branch of burning myrtle. The monastery successfully survived the Turkish conquest, because. was the stavropegic patriarch of Constantinople. severely injured during Chios massacre of 1822. (brutal massacre on April 11, 1822 by the Turks over the inhabitants of the island of Chios because the islanders supported the fighters for the independence of Greece) and earthquakes 1881 towards the middle 20th century the number of monks in it was sharply reduced, and it was transformed into a nunnery.
Nea Moni is famous for the Macedonian period mosaics that adorn its katholikon.

In the picture: the Mother of God and the grieving wives (detail of the mosaic "The Crucifixion of Christ")

Samos Island

It is famous for its numerous monuments of ancient Greek culture. The most important of them are Pythagoria with ruins ancient city, with fortified walls, aqueducts, public buildings, shrines and temples, a market square, baths, a stadium and residential buildings (VI century BC) and Sanctuary of Goddess Hera.
On about. Samos was born, lived or worked famous figures: astronomer and mathematician Aristarchus of Samos, mathematician Aristill, poet Asklepiades of Samos, Athenian politician Hyperbole, Patriarch of Jerusalem Irenaeus I, astronomer and mathematician Conon Samos, mathematician and philosopher Pythagoras, architect and sculptor Theodore of Samos, fabulist Aesop, philosopher Epicurus and etc.

An ancient city, one of the centers of Mycenaean culture, later - of Greek civilization. Dated 2nd century BC e. Currently in ruins.
According to legend, the city was built Perseus. The descendants of Danae lived here, under whom the neighboring Argos, which had greatly risen, subjugated Mycenae. In the era of the Greco-Persian wars, he finally died in the fight against the Argos. The inhabitants moved to other places, including to Tsar Alexander the Great.
In the pre-antique period, Mycenae was one of the major centers of the Aegean civilization, which died as a result of the eruption of the Santorini volcano on the island of Thira in the Mediterranean Sea. Rules here Agamemnon.
In 1876 G. Schliemann starts excavations in Mycenae. It was here that Agamemnon and his warriors delivered the rich booty of Troy.

Other sights of Greece

The largest gorge in Europe, located on the southwestern tip of the island Crete. One of the most famous sights of Crete. The length of the gorge is about 16 kilometers, and the width varies from 3.5 to 300 meters. The gorge has been inhabited since time immemorial. Here are found the remains of temples dedicated, presumably, to Apollo and Artemis. In the VI century. BC e. a city was built at the end of the gorge Tarra. Small, but autonomous and minted its own coin. The coins depicted on one side the head of a wild goat, and on the other - a bee. The river flowing along the gorge was called Tarreos. The ancient authors Diodorus, Sekliot, Pliny and others mention the gorge. The city reached its heyday during the Roman rule.
In 1962, the gorge received the status national park. The reserve covers an area of ​​4850 hectares.

Plaka (Athens)

The oldest district of Athens, located at the foot of the northern and eastern slopes of the Acropolis with a labyrinth of narrow streets and houses built in neoclassical style. Hadrian Street is the oldest street in Athens and, as excavations have shown, has retained its direction since ancient Greek times.
Many houses stand on the foundations of ancient times, although their facades were erected in the 18th century. In the 60s of the XX century. many residents moved to other areas of Athens, and empty houses and courtyards were occupied by taverns and wine cellars. But the excellent location and the presence of numerous pedestrian streets have turned Plaka into an attractive place to live, and now many people are striving to settle here.

National Art Gallery (National Pinakothek) in Athens

Art Museum in Athens, founded in 1900. and dedicated to Greek and European art from 14th century before modernity. Here are exhibited the works of Domenikos Theotokopoulos, better known by his adopted Spanish name - El Greco. Other Renaissance artists include Jacob Jordaens, Luca Giordano, Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, Jan Brueghel the Younger, Jan Brueghel the Elder, Lorenzo Veneziano, Jacopo del Sellaio, and Albrecht Dürer.

The mountain range is 75 km long. The highest point is 2404 m (mountain of St. Elijah). Located in the south of the Peloponnese peninsula. It consists mainly of crystalline schists and limestones. The highest peaks are covered with snow in winter. On the eastern slopes is the city Sparta.

Karaiskakis (stadium)

Located in the city Piraeus in Greece. It is the home arena of Olympiacos football club. The stadium is named after Georgios Karaiskakis, a hero of the Greek War of Independence, who was mortally wounded in the area. The stadium was opened in 1896 and was first used for the Summer Olympic Games 1896 g. as a velodrome.
On October 10, 1974, a public concert by composer Mikis Theodorakis took place here in honor of the end of the military dictatorship in Greece (1967-1974).

White Tower (Thessaloniki)

An architectural monument and museum in the coastal area of ​​Thessaloniki. It houses the Museum of Byzantium and is one of the main attractions of the city.
It was originally built by the Turks as a defensive structure. Then it became a famous prison and a place of mass executions. Remodeled and whitewashed after 1912 The city came under Greek rule. The former "Bloody Tower" became the "White Tower" that we know today. It has become a symbol of the city, as well as a symbol of the Greek sovereignty of Macedonia.

Zappeion

A classical style building built in Athens by the Austrian architect Theophilus von Hansen.
Named after Evangelis Zappas, Greek millionaire and philanthropist, who organized and subsidized the first Olympia, the forerunners of the modern Olympic Games. The construction of the Zappeion was started in January 1874 and completed in 1888. Since its construction, Zappeion has been used multifunctionally. During the 1906 Olympic Games, the Olympic Village was located here. During the Second World War in 1940, the Greek military hospital was located in the building.

Parts of the burial complex preserved in Thessaloniki Roman Emperor Galerius built in end III - early 4th century. Tomb at the beginning of the 5th century. became a Christian church dedicated to George the Victorious. Since 1590, it has been used as a mosque, and after the return of the church building in 1912, a museum of Christian art was opened in it, and services are held only on great holidays.

Resorts of Greece

Prefecture of Greece. The pearl of Greece, the perfect place to relax. Beach tourism center in Greece. The peninsula, shaped like a trident, is located in the northern part of the Aegean Sea. Its three "fingers" -peninsulas - Kassandra, Sithonia and Agion-Oros (Athos). Born in Halkidiki Aristotle.

Wonderful beaches, soft sand, lots of greenery, warm clear sea - all this makes the sea coast of Kassandra a favorite vacation spot.

Landscapes of Sithonia

On the peninsula of Sithonia harmoniously combine pine forests and hills, many picturesque coves and bays, magnificent sandy beaches. Sithonia offers a quiet getaway amidst magnificent nature and is ideal for those who love secluded relaxation. The mild Mediterranean climate and calm seas attract families with children.
It also offers exclusive recreation: a golf club, horseback riding, the only casino in Halkidiki, own vineyards, a private marina, children's clubs. Sithonia for the abundance of greenery and flowers is called Halkidiki peninsula park.
Numerous bays of the peninsula with sandy or snow-white pebble beaches beckon with their beauty and peace.

History of Greece

Ancient settlements in Greece

Greece has been inhabited for a very long time. Remains of the most ancient archanthropes aged 360 thousand years found in the cave of Petralone. Remains of Neanderthals found 40 thousand years ago in the Peloponnese. One of the oldest Neolithic sites in Greece is considered to be the Franhti Cave (7 thousand years BC), which indicates that its inhabitants had developed navigation.

Mycenaean civilization

The first culture on the territory of Greece of the Greek population itself is the Mycenaean culture, which combined the achievements of the previous Aegean cultures. Mycenaean culture existed starting with the arrival of the Achaeans in the Aegean region around 2100 BC e. until the fall of civilization around 1100 BC. e. This time is reflected in the epic poems of Homer and the main part Greek mythology. The Mycenaean period takes its name from the archaeological site of Mycenae, located in the northeast of the Peloponnese.
The Mycenaean civilization was ruled by a military aristocracy. Around 1400 B.C. e. Crete came under the control of the Mycenaeans. Around 1100 B.C. e. there was a sudden collapse of the Mycenaean civilization, numerous cities were devastated, and Greece plunged into the era of the Dark Ages.

Dark Ages

The period in the history of ancient Greece, covering OK. 1200-800 AD BC e., which began after the decline of the Mycenaean culture and ended with the beginning of the heyday of the Greek policies.
Very little is known about this period, it is characterized by the decline of culture and the loss of writing. There is a final destruction of the remnants of the Mycenaean civilization, the revival and dominance of tribal relations and their transformation into early class relations, the formation of unique prepolis social structures.

Ancient Greece (776-323 BC)

Ancient Greece is the name given to the countries where Greek was spoken in the ancient period of history. This Peloponnese(the territory of modern Greece) and other areas with Greek culture, inhabited in antiquity by Greeks: Cyprus, the Aegean coast of Turkey (then known as Ionia), Sicily and southern Italy (then known as Magna Graecia), as well as Greek settlements scattered along the coasts of modern Albania, southern France, eastern and northeastern Spain, Libya, Egypt, Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine and southern Russia.
The exact dates of the beginning and end of the ancient Greek period are not known. This is usually Greek history before the conquest of Greece by Rome. The ancient Greek period proper began with the first Olympic Games in 776 BC e. and continued until the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC e.
Most historians regard ancient Greece as the cultural foundation of Western civilization. Greek culture influenced the Roman Empire, which brought it to many parts of Europe. The ancient Greek civilization made a huge contribution to the language, politics, education, philosophy, art and architecture of the modern world, especially during the Renaissance in Western Europe.

Hellenistic period of Greek history (323-146 BC)

This is the period from the death of Alexander the Great to 323 BC e. before the annexation of the Peloponnesian peninsula and the Greek islands to Rome in 146 BC uh. Although the establishment of Roman domination did not prevent the preservation of the Hellenistic society and culture, which remained virtually unchanged until the advent of Christianity, it did bring about the end of Greek political independence.
The news of the death of Alexander the Great served as a signal for widespread unrest and strife among his commanders and successors, and for the collapse of the state, hastily composed and unfinished.

Roman Greece (146-330 AD)

Roman Greece- the period of Greek history after the victory of Rome over the Corinthians at the Battle of Corinth in 146 BC e. before the renaming of the city of Byzantium in 330 g. to New Rome, later Constantinople, by the Roman emperor Constantine I and the transfer of the capital of the Roman Empire to it. The Greek provinces were formed in the empire: Achaia, Thessaly, Crete and Cyrenaica, Cyprus, Epirus, Macedonia, Thrace, Asia, Bithynia, Pontus, Lycia, Pamphylia, Pisidia, Lycaonia, Cappadocia.

Byzantine Greece

B 330 g. Roman Emperor Constantine the Great declared the city of Byzantium his capital, renaming it Constantinople.

The final division of the Roman Empire occurred after the death of Theodosius the Great in 395, and in 476 the Western Roman Empire ceased to exist. The Peloponnesian peninsula and most of the Greek-speaking world remained under the rule of the Eastern Roman Empire, later called Byzantium. In the 7th century new units of territorial division (themes) were created. In 1204, Constantinople was taken by the crusaders, and the part of Byzantium not captured by the crusaders broke up into a number of states: the Nicaean Empire, the Empire of Trebizond (Pontus), the Kingdom of Epirus (Epirus), the Despotate of Morea (Peloponnese) - an apanage of the Nicaean Empire.
In the XIV century. Greece was ruled by the Crusaders and the Venetians.

Ottoman Greece (1453-1821)

Most of Greece was part of the Ottoman Empire from the 14th century before the declaration of independence in 1821. The Turks first appeared in Europe in 1354. The Byzantine Empire was weakened after the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders during the 4th Crusade in 1204. The Turks moved south, taking Athens in 1458. By 1500, most of the Greek plains and the islands had crossed to the Turks. Only the mountainous regions served as a refuge for the Greeks. Cyprus fell in 1571, and Venice held Crete until 1670. Only the Ionian Islands, under the rule of Venice, were never occupied by the Turks.
The period from 1821 is considered modern Greece. March 25 1821 with the support of European countries, the Greeks raised an armed uprising against the Turks, as a result they managed to create a kingdom led by King Otto.

Otto, the first king of modern Greece

In 1861 King Otto was deposed as a result of a military conspiracy, and in 1862 he abdicated.
Became the king of Greece George I, the second son of Christian, Prince of Holstein-Glücksburg (later King of Denmark). Throughout the reign of George, financial distress was the chief calamity that afflicted Greece. The mining and manufacturing industry of Greece is developing, its trade turnover is increasing, its wealth is growing; nevertheless, its paintings are reduced without deficits only in rare years. The main international complications in the reign of George I were due to the desire of Greece to annex the Turkish provinces inhabited by Greeks. The situation in Crete was especially sad. IN 1913. King George I is killed by an anarchist.

A significant role in gaining independence by the Greeks was played by the Russian fleet, which defeated the Turks at Navarino. The next step was the creation of a national Orthodox Church, independent of the Patriarch of Constantinople.
Revolution 1905-1907 in Russia caused the rise of the national liberation movement in Greece.
First World War pushed Greece to war with Turkey. Failures led to military coups.
During the years of German occupation in Greece, the communist partisan movement was born and strengthened. But under Stalin's agreement with Churchill, Greece was not destined to become a communist state.

"Black Colonels"

April 21, 1967. a military coup took place in Greece, as a result of which a military government of "black colonels" came to power, headed by Georgios Papadopoulos. Tanks were brought into Athens, political opponents were subjected to repression. The activities of the parties were banned, and a state of emergency was introduced in the country. In December of that year, King Constantine II attempted a counter-coup but failed and was forced to emigrate from the country. In the absence of the king, Papadopoulos declared himself regent in 1972. In an attempt to liberalize the regime of military dictatorship, Papadopoulos in 1973 abolished the monarchy and introduced in Greece Republican government declaring himself the president of the country. The students of the Polytechnic Institute in Athens raised an uprising, which was brutally suppressed. On November 25, the military carried out a coup within the junta - a general came to power Phaedo Gizikis. The state of emergency and censorship were again introduced. The new military ruler tried to annex Greek-populated Cyprus to Greece. In response, on July 20, 1974, Türkiye landed troops on the island. In Greece, mobilization began, but the recruits rebelled and forced to transfer power to a civilian government. The leaders of the junta were put on trial.

Modern Greece

After the overthrow of the "black colonels" the country was headed by an emigrant Konstantin Karamanlis. In 1974, parliamentary elections and a referendum were held, which confirmed the rejection of the monarchical form of government. In 1981, the socialists came to power, a course towards the creation of a welfare state was proclaimed, the country became a member of the European Union. In 2001, Greece abandoned the national currency and joined the euro zone.

Greek culture

Greek culture has evolved over thousands of years. It is inextricably linked with its history: the formation of Greek culture began from the time of the Minoan civilization, then the time of Classical Greece came, the influence of the Roman and Ottoman empires, but Orthodox Christianity had a special influence on the culture of the country.
Greek language is one of the oldest languages ​​in the world. It has been in existence for over 4,000 years, and writing has been around for 3,000 years.
Philosophy of Ancient Greece is the foundation of Western philosophy. Greek philosophy was born in 6th century BC uh., These were " presocratics”, most of their works have not survived. Among the pre-Socratics, seven ancient sages are known.

One of them - Thales of Miletus, since the time of Aristotle, he is considered the first philosopher of Greece, who belonged to the Milesian school. Then there was the Eleatic school, which developed the philosophy of being.
Classical period of Greek philosophy Connected with Socrates, Plato And Aristotle. At this time, Ancient Athens became the center of Greek philosophy. Socrates was thinking about the human personality. Plato founded the Academy and viewed philosophy as a logical-ethical system. Aristotle considered philosophy to be the doctrine of the real world. But in ancient Greece, in addition to these philosophical schools, others developed: stoicism(the doctrine of the Stoics is usually divided into three parts: logic, physics and ethics); Epicureanism(in physics, Epicurus proceeded from the recognition of eternity and the uncreability of the world. The Epicureans believed that for happy life a person needs: the absence of bodily suffering; equanimity of the soul; friendship); skepticism(a philosophical direction that puts forward doubt as a principle of thinking) and Neoplatonism(a doctrine that combines and systematizes the elements of the philosophy of Plato, Aristotle and Eastern teachings).
Developed philosophy and in the era Greek Revival(XV-XVIII centuries): cleric Theophilos Koridalleus, Nicholas Mavrokordat, Vikentios Damodos, Methodios Anthrakitis, and in the era Enlightenment: Eugene Bulgaris, Josipos Misiodakas, Veniamin Lesbossky. In the early years of independence from the Ottoman Empire, religious philosophy And hegelianism.
At the beginning of the 20th century, ideas spread in philosophy positivism(the main thesis: all genuine (positive) knowledge is the cumulative result of special sciences). In the post-war period, the main philosophical trends in Greece were neo-kantianism(the world is divided into nature (the world of existence or the object of natural sciences) and culture (the world of due or the object of the humanities), and culture is organized by values), phenomenology(description of the experience of the cognizing consciousness and the allocation of essential features in it), as well as irrationalism(philosophical teachings that limit or deny the role of reason in understanding the world), intuitionism(a direction in philosophy that recognizes in intuition the most reliable means of knowledge), existentialism(a trend in the philosophy of the 20th century, focusing on the uniqueness of human being, proclaiming it to be irrational).
Greek literature divided into three periods: ancient Greek, Byzantine And Modern Greek. Around the 8th century BC. e. Homer created " Iliad" And "Odyssey" - heroic epic dedicated to the Trojan War. Hesiod continued the Homeric tradition in Theogony. Poems have partially survived to our time Sappho And Anacreon. Among prominent representatives ancient Greek drama Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes. In the Byzantine period (IV-XV centuries) mainly created church literature: prose and poetry ( Roman Melodist).

- one of the scholars of the Hellenistic Enlightenment of the New Age. His main merit is purification of the Greek language from foreign impurities that entered it during the time of the political slavery of Greece. Korais published many ancient classics with valuable philological introductions, and wrote separate articles on the Greek language and literature. Literature of the 20th century. represented by the talents of many writers and poets, among them A. Kalvos, J. Psycharis, A. Pallis, A. Sikelianos, K. Varnalis, and Nobel laureates Yorgos Seferis and Odyseas Elitis.

Folk music of Greece in many ways similar to the music of other Balkan countries - Bulgaria, Serbia, the former Yugoslav Macedonia. Contemporary popular music is influenced by the West, but it also traces traditional Greek melodies and the use of national instruments, such as bouzouki. In 2005 Greek singer Elena Paparizou for the first time for Greece won the Eurovision Song Contest. Opera singer considered a phenomenon in music world. From modern opera singers Greece stands out Marios Frangoulis.

Relatively young dance Sirtaki V modern world acts as one of the symbols of Greece.