There is a surprising psychological phenomenon in our culture: we are often ashamed of emotions such as anxiety or fear. Generally a habit modern man to classify any emotions as shameful can look rather strange, because since we have emotions, it means that we are human beings, and for some reason we need these emotions. But anxiety and fear have a special function: they signal to us that we are facing some kind of danger and give us energy for the necessary actions. This is the most important function for survival, and we are born with the ability to experience fear. Unlike, say, the feeling of shame, which is more shaped by upbringing than due to our human nature (at least for most psychologists).

First of all, we are born with the ability to experience the startle response: this is the reflex we use to respond to a sudden, intense stimulus, such as a sharp, loud sound. At the same time, the body bends, the knees also bend, the shoulders rise, the head moves forward, the eyes blink. This is precisely a reflex, that is, this reaction occurs before a person has time to comprehend the situation and assess the real degree of danger. At first, we react with a fear reaction, and then there is already an emotion associated with understanding what is happening. If the situation is actually dangerous, then fear will appear, if there is no real danger, curiosity or irritation may appear, and if a person in childhood was ridiculed for a fear reaction, then shame will appear. Since this is a reflex, the startle response does not depend on whether the person is “cowardly” or “brave”, but depends on lability nervous system, that is, on how fast and intense mental processes are. Naturally, if due to the profession, some sharp sounds cease to be unusual, these sounds turn on the reflex less and less. For example, for a soldier, the sounds of shots cease to be unusual, which means that the fear reaction to these sounds decreases and is replaced by the reaction that is trained professionally. But the reflex will persist to all other sudden stimuli.

Physiological changes will be much more pronounced with a feeling of fear, which differs from the fear reaction by realizing the real danger. The autonomic nervous system is responsible for the work of internal organs, which, firstly, is autonomous, that is, inaccessible to conscious control, and secondly, it is divided into two sections: the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic. The sympathetic nervous system is responsible for mobilizing the body to fight danger, while the parasympathetic nervous system is responsible for digestion and assimilation of food. Fear activates the sympathetic nervous system. Its activity is needed in order to prepare the body to fight danger or to flee, since the fight-flight mechanism is a natural biological response to danger. The heart rate increases so that more blood enters the muscles, peripheral blood vessels compressed to provide high blood pressure. Due to the reduction of peripheral vessels, a person turns pale. Since there is a threat of freezing when the superficial vessels contract, it is often possible to notice a shiver in the body, which contributes to the release of heat, as well as “hairs stand on end” to keep warm. Breathing quickens and becomes deeper so that the blood is better saturated with oxygen. The pupils constrict to better see the danger, and the eyes open wide to enlarge the view and see the escape routes. In order to prevent processes in the body that interfere with the fight, the internal hollow organs are reduced - urination becomes more frequent and there is a desire to empty the intestines. Digestion also stops. The sympathetic and parasympathetic systems are opposite in their activity, and the activation of the sympathetic system inhibits the parasympathetic. This leads to the fact that when afraid, appetite is lost and dry mouth may appear, since salivation is blocked as well as the secretion of gastric juice.

With a not very pronounced activity of the sympathetic nervous system, it does not block the parasympathetic, and then the appetite is preserved. Moreover, the activity of the parasympathetic nervous system can, in turn, somewhat inhibit sympathetic system i.e. reduce anxiety. Therefore, anxiety is sometimes "jammed". Although, of course, this "jamming" of anxiety is associated not only with purely physiological mechanisms. Since in infancy we eat when anxiety arises (the baby is breastfed when it cries, because in order for it to feel safe, it must feel the care of the mother), food is associated with safety.

The sympathetic nervous system is active not only during fear, but also during anger, and the described physiological reactions are not specific to fear, but general to the mobilization of the body. The emotion that a person experiences when faced with danger does not depend on the autonomic nervous system, but on how this danger is assessed. If we regard the danger as insurmountable, then we experience fear, but if we think that we are able to cope with this threat, we tend to experience anger, which pushes us to attack and fight. In this sense, our reaction to a threat depends on how we evaluate our own strengths.

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Introduction

1. Psychoanalytic direction

2 Existential logotherapy

3 Behavioral direction

1 Fears in childhood

2 Fears in teenagers

3 Fears in adults

4 Fears in the elderly

Conclusion

Bibliography

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Topic of the course work: "Psychology of fear".

The relevance of the topic of the course work is due to the fact that the feeling of fear is inherent in all higher animals and is even more characteristic of man. An animal can be afraid only of concrete dangers, but a person, thanks to his imagination, is also afraid of imaginary troubles, most of which he himself creates. It is easy to create a new fear, but it is difficult to kill it precisely because of its intangibility. Fear is emotional condition, which any person almost every day can observe in himself. However, it is not at all easy to explain what fear is in its essence.

The purpose of this course work: a theoretical analysis of understanding and approaches to the study of the psychology of fear.

In accordance with the goal and objectives, it was studied: definitions and types of fear, theoretical directions in the study of the phenomenon of fear, age-related features of the occurrence of fear, factors influencing the occurrence of fear, methods of correcting fear.

Introduction

The phenomenon of fear is one of the most actual problems, which scientists are engaged in and will always remain, because as long as a person exists, fear will exist with him.

It is impossible to find a person who would never experience a feeling of fear. Anxiety, anxiety, fear are the same emotional integral manifestations of our mental life as joy, admiration, anger, surprise, sadness.

Fear is an emotion familiar to everyone. It has a much greater influence on us than it seems at first glance. This is an emotion that has a significant impact on perceptual-cognitive processes, on the behavior of the individual. Intense fear creates the effect of "tunnel perception", that is, it greatly limits the perception, thinking and freedom of choice of the individual. In addition, fear limits the freedom of human behavior.

The emotion of fear arises when a person is in a situation that he perceives as dangerous to his peace of mind and biological or social existence. Fear is a signal, a warning about imminent danger, imaginary or real, in principle, it doesn’t matter, since our body acts the same way.

Fear exists regardless of the culture, faith and level of development of the people; the only thing that changes is the objects of fear, as soon as we think that we have won or overcome fear, another kind of fear appears, as well as other means aimed at overcoming it.

There are many fears in our life. According to psychologists, each person has his own “set of fears”, consisting of several components, many of which come from early childhood. Many people are ashamed of their fears and instead of learning how to deal with fear, they look for means to eliminate it, such as alcohol, drugs, medicines. In an effort to simply eliminate, ignore, drown out fear, a person inevitably falls into error and, propagating such ideas, leads to dead ends those who want to learn how to handle their fear.

Many scientists have been investigating this problem. These are Z. Freud, A. Freud, V. Frankl, E. Erickson, A. Zakharov, Y. Shcherbatykh and many others.

The purpose of this work: a theoretical analysis of understandings and approaches to the study of the psychology of fear.

Subject of study: the phenomenon of fear.

To achieve the goal of the course work, the following tasks were developed:

1.to get acquainted with the definitions and types of fear;

2.get acquainted with the theoretical directions in the study of the phenomenon of fear;

.consider the age-related features of the emergence of fear;

.to get acquainted with the factors influencing the occurrence of fear;

.Familiarize yourself with methods of overcoming fear.

Chapter 1. Definition of the concept of fear

Fear - (German Angst; French angoisse; English anxiety) is a mental state of a person associated with painful experiences and causing actions aimed at self-preservation (Leybin V. 2010).

By now, there are many definitions of fear.

W. James considered fear as one of the three strongest emotions along with joy and anger, and also as an “ontogenetic early” human instinct.

According to A. Freud and 3. Freud, fear is an affective state of expectation of some kind of danger. Fear of a particular object is called fear, in pathological cases - a phobia (A. Freud, Z. Freud, 1993). In his work “Prohibition, Symptom and Fear”, Z. Freud defines fear as, first of all, something that can be felt. This feeling is in the nature of displeasure. Fears are often the result of unsatisfied desires and needs (S. Freud, 2001).

According to A. Adler, fear comes from the suppression of an aggressive desire that plays leading role in everyday life and in neurosis (S. Yu. Golovin. 1998).

According to G. Craig, fear is an emotion that a person tries to avoid or minimize, but at the same time, fear, manifesting itself in a mild form, can induce learning (G. Craig, 2002).

E. Erickson describes fear as a state of apprehension, focused on isolated and recognizable threats, so that they can be soberly assessed and realistically resisted (E. Erickson, 1996).

D. Eike believes that fear is a mental phenomenon that any person can observe in himself almost every day. Fear is an unpleasant emotional experience when a person is more or less aware that he is in danger (D. Eike, 1998).

K. Izard writes that fear is very strong emotion, experienced as an alarming premonition, anxiety. “A person experiences more and more uncertainty about his own well-being, fear is experienced as a feeling of absolute insecurity and uncertainty about his own safety.”

The person feels that the situation is out of control. He feels a threat to his physical and / or psychological "I", and in extreme cases - even a threat to his life. K. Izard defines fear as the most dangerous of all emotions. Intense fear even leads to death: animals and humans can be literally scared to death. But at the same time, fear also plays a positive role: it can serve as a warning signal and change the direction of thought and behavior (K. Izard, 1999).

I.P. Pavlov defined fear as "a manifestation of a natural reflex, a passive-defensive reaction with slight inhibition of the cerebral cortex." Fear is based on the instinct of self-preservation, has a protective character and is accompanied by certain changes in higher nervous activity, is reflected in the pulse rate and respiration, blood pressure, and gastric juice secretion. In its most general form, the emotion of fear arises in response to the action of a threatening stimulus. At the same time, there are two threats that have a universal and at the same time fatal character in their outcome. This is death and the collapse of life values, opposing such concepts as life, health, self-affirmation, personal and social well-being.

E.P. Ilyin considers fear as an emotional state that reflects the protective biological reaction of a person or animal when they experience a real or imaginary danger to their health and well-being. However, according to the author, if for a person as a biological being the occurrence of fear is not only expedient, but also useful, then for a person as a social being, fear can become an obstacle to achieving his goals (E.P. Ilyin, 2001).

According to A.I. Zakharov, fear is one of the fundamental human emotions that arises in response to the action of a threatening stimulus. If we objectively consider the emotion of fear, we can state that fear performs various functions in a person's life. Throughout the entire period of development of the human race, fear acted as the organizer of the struggle of people with the elements. Fear allows you to avoid danger, as it played and plays a protective role. Therefore, A.I. Zakharov believes that fear can be seen as a natural accompaniment of human development (A.I. Zakharov, 2000). The emotion of fear, like many other emotions, is distinguished by its propensity to be fixed in memory.

It has been proven that those events that are associated with the experience of fear are remembered better and more firmly. Fear in relation to objects and actions that caused pain and trouble is useful in that it encourages them to be avoided in the future. Fear is "a kind of means of knowing the surrounding reality, leading to a more critical, selective attitude towards it," writes A. Zakharov.

According to L.S. Vygotsky: “Fear is a very strong emotion that has a very significant impact on the individual's behavior and perceptual-cognitive processes. Our attention is sharply reduced when we experience fear, focusing on an object or situation that signals us about danger. Intense fear significantly limits the thinking, perception and freedom of choice of the individual, creating the effect of "tunnel perception". In addition, fear severely limits a person's freedom of behavior. We can say that in fear a person ceases to belong to himself, he is driven by a single desire - to avoid danger or eliminate the threat ”(L.S. Vygotsky, 1983).

Chapter 2. Classification of fears

There are several different classifications of fears.

Sigmund Freud divided fears into two groups: real fears and neurotic ones. Real fear is a completely normal emotional process. It arises in a situation of danger and helps the body to mobilize in order to avoid this danger. And neurotic fear is what we used to call a phobia; it occurs when confronted with situations and objects that are not actually dangerous.

Also, A.I. Zakharov, developing the ideas of Z. Freud, highlights real and imaginary, acute and chronic fears. Real and acute fears are predetermined by the situation, while imaginary and chronic fears are predetermined by personality traits (A.I. Zakharov, 1995).

Exploring the state of fear, the famous Polish psychiatrist A. Kempinski identifies four types of fear: biological, social, moral, disintegration. He connects this classification with situations that cause the installation of fear. For example, situations associated with an immediate threat to life cause biological fear. The threat coming from outside is clearly perceived by the subject, causing fear, and it is the stronger, the more helpless a person feels in a situation of danger. Fear also appears if the threat comes from within, but “the awareness of the threat is vague, vague. There is only fear, but its causes are unknown” (A. Kempinski, 2000).

Known for his research in this area, the scientist, psychotherapist A.I. Zakharov believes that conventionally all fears can be divided into natural and social. According to Zakharov, “natural fears are based on the instinct of self-preservation, and in addition to the fundamental fears of one’s death and the death of parents, they also include fears of monsters, ghosts, animals, darkness, moving vehicles, the elements, heights, depths, water, confined spaces, fire, fire, blood, injections, pain, doctors, unexpected sounds, etc.” (A.I. Zakharov, 2004). The author refers to social fears the fear of loneliness, some people, punishment, not being in time, being late, not coping, not coping with feelings, not being oneself, condemnation from peers, etc.

Also, A.I. Zakharov believes that fears in the most general form are conditionally divided into situational and personally conditioned. Situational fear arises in an unusual, extremely dangerous or shocking environment for an adult or a child. Often it appears as a result of a mental infection of panic in a group of people, disturbing forebodings on the part of family members, difficult trials, conflicts and life failures.

Personally conditioned fear is predetermined by the character of a person, for example, by his anxious suspiciousness, and is able to appear in a new environment or in contact with strangers (A.I. Zakharov, 1995).

Analyzing children's fears, A.I. Zakharov distinguishes between age-related fears and neurotic fears. He considers age fears as arising in emotionally sensitive children, as a reflection of the characteristics of their mental and personal development. Neurotic fears have the following significant differences: great emotional intensity and tension; adverse effect on the formation of character and personality; painful sharpening; relationship with others mental disorders and experiences; avoidance of the object of fear, as well as everything new and unknown; a strong connection with the fears of parents and the relative difficulty of elimination (A.I. Zakharov, 1995).

Professor Yu.V. Shcherbatykh in his classification of fears divides all fears into three groups: natural, social and internal. Natural fears are associated with the threat to human life. Natural phenomena that inspire fear in people: thunderstorms, solar eclipses, the appearance of comets, volcanic eruptions and accompanying earthquakes, which are associated in humans with fear of the end of the world. Animal fears constitute a special group of natural fears. To animals that cause people especially intense fear undoubtedly include snakes. The second group is made up of social fears - fear for a change in one's social status. Social fears may stem from biological fears, but they always have a specific social component that comes to the fore, pushing aside more primitive factors of survival. The third group is made up of internal fears, born only by the fantasy and imagination of a person and having no real basis. TO inner fears the researcher attributes not only the fears born of a person’s fantasy, but also the fears of his own thoughts, if they run counter to the existing moral principles. There are also intermediate forms of fear, standing on the verge of two sections, and the author refers to them the fear of spiders. “On the one hand, there are poisonous spiders (karakurt, tarantula), whose bite is painful and even fatal, but the chances of meeting them in our latitudes are minimal, and people are afraid of all spiders, even completely harmless ones.

In the vast majority of cases, people are afraid not of a specific animal they have met, but of that terrible image that they themselves created in their minds as early as childhood” (Yu.V. Shcherbatykh, 2007).

A phobia is stronger and more persistent than just fear and the desire to avoid an object or situation is greater. Phobias are obsessive fears, an intense and overwhelming fear that grips a person, despite understanding the meaninglessness and trying to cope with it.

People with a phobia feel fear even at the thought of an object or situation that frightens them, but they usually feel quite comfortable as long as they manage to avoid this object and thoughts about it. Most of them are well aware that their fears are excessive and unfounded. Some have no idea about the origin of their fears.

Chapter 3

1 Psychoanalytic direction

In the view of Z. Freud, the development of fear is closely connected with the system of the unconscious, with libido. The transformation of libido into fear is carried out through the process of repression. The repressed sexual impulses, as it were, find their discharge in the form of fear, moreover, neurotic fear. So, considering phobias, Z. Freud singled out two phases of the neurotic process. The first phase is characterized by the implementation of repression and the transformation of sexual desires into fear, correlated with external danger. In the second phase, the organization of a defense system is observed that helps to prevent a collision with this danger, when repression is nothing more than an attempt to escape the "I" from sexual desires. In other neurotic diseases, other defense systems are used against the possible development of fear (Freud Z. 2001). But in any case, according to Z. Freud, the problem of fear occupies a central place in the psychology of neuroses.

In his work “Beyond the pleasure principle”, Z. Freud stated that the concepts of “fear”, “fear”, “fear” are incorrectly used as synonyms. Making a distinction between fear, dread and fright from the point of view of the attitude towards danger, Freud expressed the following considerations on this subject. In his opinion, fear means a certain state of expectation of danger and preparation for the latter, even if it is unknown; fear implies a certain object that is feared; fright reflects the moment of surprise and is a state that occurs in case of danger, when the subject is unprepared for it.

In the work “Inhibition, Symptom and Fear”, devoted to the problem of fear, Z. Freud emphasized that the danger underlying real fear comes from an external object, while neurotic danger comes from the requirement of attraction. But the demand for attraction does not appear to be something far-fetched, it is real, and, consequently, we can assume that neurotic fear has no less real grounds than real fear. This means that the relationship between fear and neurosis is explained by the defense of the "I" in the form of a reaction of fear to the danger emanating from the attraction. From Freud's point of view, the demand of an instinct often becomes an internal danger precisely because its satisfaction can lead to an external danger. At the same time, in order to become significant for the “I”, the external, real danger must turn into an internal experience of a person (Freud Z. 2001). In this work, Freud expressed such an understanding of the nature of fear, which testified to the refinement and revision of his earlier ideas about fear. The revision of the ideas about fear he had previously formulated in lectures on the introduction to psychoanalysis was associated with the approach to analysis mental life a person who was realized in the work "I and It". In it, Freud emphasized that the poor, unfortunate "I" is endangered from three sides and can be seized by a triple fear - a real fear of the outside world, a fear of conscience of the "Super-I" and a neurotic fear of the "It". Indeed, the structuring of the psyche led Freud to the psychoanalytic understanding that the unconscious It does not experience fear, because it cannot judge situations of danger, and it is the “I”, and not the “It”, that is the place of concentration of fear. It is no coincidence that in the work “I and It” he emphasized that the “I” is a “genuine center of fear” and, in view of the threat of three dangers, develops an “escape reflex”, resulting in the formation of neurotic symptoms and defense mechanisms leading to phobias. “We welcomed as desirable the correspondence that the three main types of fear: real fear, neurotic and fear of conscience, without any exaggeration, are consistent with the three dependences of the “I” - from the external world, from the “It” and from the “Super-I” (Z Freud, 2011).

Some of Freud's ideas were further developed in the works of K. Horney, who contributed a lot to the understanding of anxiety and the nature of fear in psychology.

“All kinds of fear arise from unresolved conflicts. But since we must be exposed to them if we are to achieve the integrity of our personality, they seem to be a necessary obstacle in our movement towards ourselves. They represent, so to speak, the purgatory through which we must pass before we can achieve salvation ”(C. Horney., 2007).

The cause of personality conflicts, according to K. Horney, is, first of all, the impact of social factors, cultural values ​​(rivalry, hostility from others, fear of failure, etc.).

As a result of these influences, a person faces complex contradictions (the tendency to aggressiveness and the tendency to yield; excessive claims and fear of never getting anything; the desire for self-aggrandizement and a sense of personal helplessness.), which prevent the satisfaction of necessary needs and desires, which gives rise to feelings of isolation, helplessness, fear and hostility.

3.2 Behavioral direction

At the beginning of the development of behaviorism, John Watson named several stimuli that cause fear: sudden loud noises, sudden loss of support, shocks and blows at the moment of falling asleep. Other stimuli triggering reactions of fear, from his point of view, are a combination of those already mentioned.

On the basis of innate (unconditioned) reactions of fear, new stimuli appear in the course of life that cause fear. In his experiments, Watson found that many stimuli, such as animals, darkness, fire, do not cause fear in infancy.

Studying the emotions of infants, John B. Watson, among other things, became interested in the possibility of forming a fear reaction in relation to objects that previously did not cause fear. Together with Rosalia Rayner (Watson, Rayner, 1920), Watson tested the possibility of forming an emotional reaction of fear of a white rat in an 11-month-old baby who had previously tolerated a rat in his crib and even played with it. Albert, the son of a nurse who worked in the hospital, was a completely healthy boy, and before the start of the experiment (at the age of 9 months) he was not afraid of white rats, rabbits, dogs, cotton wool, monkeys and other animals. Three other children who were in the hospital at that moment were not afraid of these objects either.

The experiment was undertaken to answer three questions:

Can an infant be taught to be afraid of animals if the animal is presented at the same time as the fear-producing stimulus (the sound of hitting a metal plate)?

Will this fear spread to other animals?

How long will the conditioned fear last?

Loud sounds were used in the experiment as an unconditioned fear-inducing stimulus (thrown with a hammer on an iron strip behind the baby's back).

In the first series, the plate was hit only twice each time Albert touched a white rat placed in his cradle. After two attempts, Albert began to avoid contact with the rat. A week later, the experiment was repeated - this time the strip was hit five times, simply by placing the mouse in the cradle. The baby began to demonstrate an avoidance reaction and cried only at the sight of a white rat.

After another five days, Watson decided to test whether the fear response would be transferred to other objects. Fear was recorded upon presentation of a rabbit, dog, fur coat. Albert also avoided contact with cotton wool and the mask of Santa Claus. Since these objects were not accompanied by loud sounds, Watson concluded that fear reactions were transferred to similar objects. For control, Albert was given to play with wooden cubes. Cubes of fear did not cause (Watson D.B., 1998). Watson suggested that by analogy with this, many of the fears, dislikes and anxiety states of adults are formed in early childhood.

Watson further discovered that conditioned fears in humans are remarkably persistent, easily transferable to adjacent situations, and often require quite lengthy therapy. This is due to the fact that conditioned fears easily extend to similar situations, but the extinction of fears achieved in the course of therapy does not apply to similar situations.

With the development of B.F. Skinner of the theory of operant conditioning, another (operant) model of fear conditioning appeared. According to this model, fears can be generated, maintained, and reinforced by the reinforcer that occurs after the fearful behavior.

Here it is customary to distinguish between positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement.

The possibility of fear arising as a result of positive reinforcement with pleasant consequences can be illustrated by the following example.

A child who is frightened of something and runs to his parents for protection receives care, affection and protection from them. In any potentially scary or unpleasant event, he now more readily turns to his parents for support, demonstrating a persistent escape strategy.

Sometimes the child may even feign fear in this case in order to once again receive reinforcement. Fear acquires what in behavioral therapy is commonly called a hidden benefit. Such fears are especially strong in the event that being scared for a child is the only way to attract the attention of parents. The flight reaction reinforced in this way is more common in the future and often generalized. A child, for example, asks to go to bed with his parents, motivating it with fear of the dark.

Since fear itself is an unpleasant stimulus, a person seeks to prevent fear. Each time this succeeds, operant (negative) reinforcement occurs. Thus, fear begins to reinforce itself, which explains the resistance of fear to extinction in the absence of a conditioned stimulus.

3.3 Existential logotherapy

V. Frankl describes the mechanism of the formation of a fear reaction as follows: a person has a fear of some phenomenon (heart attack, heart attack, cancer, etc.), the expectation reaction is the fear that this phenomenon or condition will occur. Individual symptoms of the expected state may appear, which intensifies fear, and the circle of tension closes: the fear of expecting an event becomes stronger than the fears directly related to the event. A person begins to react to his fear by fleeing from reality (from life).

In this situation, V. Frankl proposes to use self-detachment. The ability to self-detachment is most clearly manifested in humor. Humor allows you to distance yourself from anything (including yourself) and thereby gain control over yourself and the situation.

Fear is a biological response to avoid situations that appear dangerous. If a person actively searches for these situations himself, then he will learn to act “past” fear, and fear will gradually disappear, as if “atrophying from idleness” (Frankl V., 2001).

In corrective work with fears, V. Frankl uses the method of paradoxical intention. This method assumes that the psychologist directs the client to exactly what he is trying to avoid. Paradoxical intention, a psychotherapeutic method that was proposed by Alfred Adler and later developed by Viktor Frankl, helps to cope with your fears. The term "intention" (from Latin intentio - "aspiration", "attention") means an internal desire, the focus of consciousness on any object or phenomenon, and "paradoxical" - literally "made vice versa". (Frankl W., 2001).

Fears often arise when an incident occurs and unpleasant experiences associated with it. For example, someone has a public speech, he is very worried and suddenly notices that his hands are trembling. When he once again has to speak, the usual excitement is added to the fear that his hands will tremble again - and this fear comes true. Then the person begins to refuse to speak: he thinks about how his hands will shake again and it will not be possible to hide it. If fear is not overcome in time, the situation may worsen. This is how a phobia is formed, which leads to the fact that the symptom does indeed recur, and as a result, the initial fears are even more intensified.

In such situations, paradoxical intention helps. V. Frankl described such a case: the parents of a nine-year-old boy turned to a psychotherapist, who, despite all the punishments and reproaches, wet the bed every night. The therapist surprised the child with an unexpected offer: whenever the bed was wet, he would receive 50 cents for it. The boy was very pleased, hoping to make money from his lack of money. But although he did everything possible to receive the award, nothing worked out for him. The neurotic symptom disappeared as soon as the desire for its repetition came to the fore.

For example, if a person is afraid of enclosed spaces, he is encouraged to force himself to be in such a room. And as a result of a long stay, as a rule, fear disappears, and a person gains self-confidence, ceases to be afraid of what he had previously avoided (Frankl V., 2001).

Chapter 4

1 Fears in childhood

Children's fears are the emotional reactions of children to a situation of threat (real or imagined), or to an object dangerous in the minds of children, experienced by them as discomfort, excitement, a desire to run away or hide.

Young children have more fears and phobias than adults and experience the emotion of fear more intensely. Their fears can start and stop for no apparent reason, in the process of child development. Novelty, unpredictability and sudden changes can cause fears in children. Adults teach children to be afraid of certain things before the child encounters them. Children can "pick up" the fears of adults in the family (I M Marks, 1987).

First year of life

Increased anxiety in children in the first months of life most often occurs when vital physiological needs for food, sleep, activity, bowel emptying, warmth, i.e., everything that determines the physical and emotional comfort of the baby, are not satisfied. If the physiological needs are not completely satisfied, the anxiety caused by them may persist for a long time, for example, at the time of falling asleep, eating (A.I. Zakharov, 2004).

Psychological needs as sources of anxiety do not manifest themselves immediately. The first manifestation of emotional contact is the reciprocal smile of the baby between the 1st and 2nd months, which speaks not only of the need for positive human emotions, but also of the separation of the mother from the surrounding people, and soon other adults. At the age of 2 months. there is anxiety in the absence of the mother and being in a new environment (A.I. Zakharov, 2004).

At 7-8 months. anxiety in a new environment decreases, but the child's ability to distinguish it from others increases. This indicates the formation of an emotional image of the mother.

The anxiety associated with separation from the mother and the fear that people experience in empty or crowded places are very similar. According to many psychiatric theories, it is this period of a child's life that is the decisive moment for determining whether this person will suffer from fear of "open places" in the future or will be spared from such a fate.

Age 7-9 months. - this is a period of increased sensitivity to the emergence of anxiety and fear, respectively.

Starting from 14 months life, there is a decrease in anxiety in the absence of a mother and the fear of strangers practically decreases.

From 1 year to 3 years

By the age of 2, children quite clearly distinguish the sympathies of their parents. This is the age when they cry from resentment and interfere in the conversation of adults, unable to bear the lack of attention. Anxiety due to the inseparability of the feelings of the parents is fully reflected in the dream, filling it with the horrors of the disappearance of the mother.

Those parents who forbid, limit the independence of the child, protect, risk interfering with the development of activity at the earliest stages, which further contribute to the emergence of fear. If you miss the time for joining the emotional and volitional sides of the developing psyche of the child, then they will exist independently of each other. The behavior of such a child is “quiet”, “clogged” at home and aggressive with peers or anxious. Night fears are not uncommon (A.I. Zakharov, 1995).

3 to 5 years

This is the age of the emotional formation of the "I" of the child. A sense of community is also formed - “we”. There is a sense of guilt and empathy. Independence increases, does not require the constant attention of adults and seeks to communicate with peers. From about 3 to 6 years, the period of night fears lasts: the darkness is teeming with terrible monsters, ghosts. The child is afraid of thunderstorms, lightning, fire, night. He doesn't want to be alone, he needs to keep the light next to his bed on and the door ajar.

5 to 7 years

A feature of preschool age is the intensive development of abstract thinking. At this age, the experience of interpersonal relationships is formed, based on the child's ability to accept and play roles, anticipate and plan the actions of another, understand his feelings and intentions.

In 6-year-old children, fears of devils are typical, as violators of social rules and established foundations, and for the same reason, as representatives of the other world. IN more obedient children are subject to the fear of devils, who have experienced a feeling of guilt characteristic of age in violation of the rules, instructions of significant for them, authoritative persons. And also overcomes anxiety and doubts about his future - “What if I won’t be beautiful?”, In the 7-year-old - suspiciousness - “Won't we be late?” (A.I. Zakharov, 2004).

At 5-7 years old, they are often afraid of terrible dreams and death in a dream. Moreover, the very fact of awareness of death occurs most often in a dream. Not infrequently, in a dream, children of this age may dream of separation from their parents, due to the fear of their disappearance and loss.

7 to 11 years old

By the age of 7, the child's fears change: from terrible and vague fears, the child moves to more specific ones - this is a period of anxiety about school and schooling, relationships with peers and with the teacher. These fears can be expressed in the child's refusal to go to school.

This manifestation of fear can have two components. Firstly, it is anxiety due to separation from the mother, from the maternal, home environment, the fear of leaving his mother, the fear that something will happen to her during his absence. Secondly, it is the fear of the school itself and everything that can happen there. The child begins to complain about the school and, in the end, refuses to go there. If he is forced to return to school, then he is seized by anxiety, he loses his appetite, he develops nausea, vomiting, and headaches. All these illnesses allow him not to openly express his refusal to go to school: he simply "gets sick", more and more often.

In a number of cases, fear of school is caused by conflicts with peers, fear of manifestations of physical aggression on their part. This is especially true for emotionally sensitive, often ill and weakened boys, and especially for those of them who have moved to another school.

The leading fear at this age is the fear of “not being the one” about whom they speak well, who is respected, appreciated and understood. In other words, it is the fear of not meeting the social requirements of the immediate environment. Specific forms of the fear of “being wrong” are fears of doing something wrong, wrong, wrong, not as it should be, as it should be. They talk about growing social activity, about strengthening the sense of responsibility, duty, obligation, i.e. about what is united in the concept of "conscience". A complete lack of a sense of responsibility is typical for children of parents with chronic alcoholism, leading to the same antisocial lifestyle. There is also a delay in the development of a sense of responsibility in cases of mental infantilism and hysteria (Zakharov A., 2004).

The vast majority of fears are to some extent due to age-related characteristics and are temporary. Children's fears, if you treat them correctly, understand the reasons for their appearance, most often disappear without a trace. If they are painfully pointed or persist for a long time, then this is a sign of trouble, it speaks of the nervous weakness of the child, the parents' misbehavior, their ignorance of the child's mental and age characteristics, their own fears, conflict relations in the family.

There are always fewer fears in the first years and they quickly disappear if the mother is next to the child, the father dominates in the family, the parents do not wage a "war" with stubbornness, develop, and do not suppress or drown out the child's emerging "I" with anxiety, the parents themselves are sure in themselves and are able to help children overcome imaginary and real dangers (Zakharov A., 2004).

Since fear is one of the defensive reactions that ensure the avoidance of potentially dangerous objects, learning to fear often takes the form of intimidating children, as a result of which fears become generalized and become chronic, that is, they become pathological phenomena - phobias. So the regular intimidation of a child in the context of the struggle for personal hygiene can lead to a phobia of infection and insects and be accompanied by the development of obsessive-compulsive disorder (G. Breslav, 2004).

2 Fears in teenagers

“Adolescence is a crucial period in the formation of a teenager's worldview, a system of relationships, interests, hobbies and social orientation. Self-esteem undergoes significant development, which is inextricably linked with a sense of self-esteem, self-confidence in the context of real interpersonal relationships” (Zakharov A., 2004).

It is always difficult for a teenager to endure collisions with the adult world. With one hand he is still holding on to his parents, and with the other he is clutching at his future.

A.I. Zakharov in his book “Day and Night Fears in Children” writes that if natural fears predominate in early adolescence, then these fears decrease, and social fears increase with a maximum increase at 15 years. Compared with boys, girls have more not only instinctive fears, but also interpersonal (social) fears. This not only confirms the greater timidity of girls, but also indicates a more pronounced anxiety in them. The growth of anxiety and social fears is one of the criteria for the formation of self-awareness in adolescents, which increases sensitivity in the field of interpersonal relationships.

“The unstable teenage psyche greedily snatches out of the context of the surrounding life the prudently proposed by society scarecrows (death, illness, poverty, pain, cruelty, maniacs, rapists, crisis, war, mafia, isolation, condemnation, the impossibility of succeeding, ugliness, unattractiveness ...). Lots of scarecrows. Almost every decade creates new monsters and reconstructs old ones. And at different times they grow in the minds of growing children in different ways” (Zakharov A., 1995).

Fears in adolescents are usually carefully hidden. The presence of persistent fears in adolescence always indicates an inability to protect oneself. The gradual development of fears into anxious fears also speaks of self-doubt and lack of understanding on the part of adults, when there is no sense of security and confidence in the immediate social environment. Thus, the teenage problem of “being oneself among others” turns into both self-doubt and insecurity in others. Self-doubt, which grows out of fear, is the basis of wariness, and uncertainty in others is the basis of suspicion.

Alertness and suspicion turn into incredulity, which later turns into bias in relations with people, conflicts or isolation of one's "I" and a departure from reality.

4.3 Fears in adults

Adults also worry and worry about a lot of fears, anxieties and phobias.

“Many try to hide their fears, as social conditions condemn people who show their fears, especially for men. Therefore, many people prefer not to tell anyone about their fears so as not to damage their reputation ”(Shcherbatykh Yu. V., 2011).

For example, in male manufacturing workers, the most common fears are related to the economy, happiness in personal life, and political events. Women - both high and low socioeconomic status - most often indicate concerns about relationships with others, fear natural phenomena(thunderstorms, dark places) and political conflicts, as well as often mention the fears associated with the economy.

Educational fears are also secondary in the college years, when men and women are most concerned about personal relationships, political events, and fear of growing old. The fears associated with learning are about perceived financial costs, not academic achievement. College professors who were asked to rank their fears put their economic and political worries ahead of concerns about mediocre students, the burden of regular publishing, impending re-election, and a lack of academic freedom. Lawyers also prioritize economic and political fears, followed by concerns about too many immigrants and foreigners buying land in the US. Doctors rank their fears like lawyers, except that they prioritize their fear of litigation (Raymond Corsini, Alan Auerbach 1996).

“Stanley Hall interprets his data on a significant predominance of the number of fears in the female part of the population in all age groups (for girls on average - 5.46, and for boys - 2.58) - because boys unconsciously reproduce the samples of their ancestors - fearless hunters and fishermen "(Breslav G., 2004).

4.4 Fears in the elderly

One of the main sources of fear in elderly and senile people can be considered the lack of a clear life rhythm; narrowing the scope of communication; withdrawal from active labor activity; "empty nest" syndrome; withdrawal of a person into himself; a feeling of discomfort from a closed space and many other life events and situations. The strongest is the fear of being alone in old age. Loneliness in old age may be associated with living separately from younger family members. However, more significant in old age are psychological aspects: isolation, self-isolation, reflecting the awareness of loneliness as a lack of understanding, indifference on the part of others. Loneliness becomes especially real for a person who lives a long time. The heterogeneity and complexity of the feeling of loneliness is expressed in the fact that an old person, on the one hand, feels a growing gap with others, is afraid of a lonely lifestyle; on the other hand, he seeks to isolate himself from others, to protect his world and stability in it from the intrusion of outsiders. One of the very serious reasons for the disruption of communication with others lies in the disruption of ties between old people and young people (Craig G. 2005).

In late adulthood, the level of fears rises, this is due to the fact that, on the one hand, they accumulate throughout life, on the other hand, the threat is the approach of the end. The problem of the fear of death is difficult enough to discuss. Individual differences in relation to death are due to their life values adaptability to life, health status. Death is feared by people who have not accepted old age as an inevitable stage of life, unadapted to it.

The fear of death has several sources. Death can be associated with insurmountability, hopelessness, suffering and deprivation are attributed to it; death is also associated with the action of all negative emotions, for which images, words, signs, rituals of death become incentives.

Solving the problem of waiting for death involves the ability to say goodbye to everything that happened in life. This skill is far from obvious, a person's old age can last from one year to fifty years, not everyone can feel the term assigned to him with accuracy.

Chapter 5

“Not all contemporaries shared John Watson's idea of ​​the innate emotion of fear, most considered fear an acquired property” (Breslav G., 2004).

The first experience of fear in a person occurs at birth, which objectively means separation from the mother, and therefore the state of fear is considered as a "reproduction of the trauma of birth." Some followers of the psychoanalytic direction have also made attempts to connect various phobias with "birth trauma". Some, for example, considered the violation of a happy intrauterine existence during childbirth as the root cause of fear. Others focused on the early bond between mother and child and the possibility of a mother's anxiety being transferred to her child (Rank O., 2001).

“Tomkins cites physiological drives, emotions, and cognitive processes as causes of fear. Some researchers consider the development of the emotion of fear as a function of the quality of the child's attachment to the mother. Other researchers, speaking about the causes of fear, single out specific events and situations” (Izard K., 1999).

A drive acquires psychological significance when its intensity reaches a critical level, when it signals a person about an acute physiological deficit. In these cases, the drive activates the emotion, and that emotion might be fear. The need for oxygen is one of the vital needs of a living organism, and the powerful affect that accompanies the feeling of suffocation guarantees an immediate focus on satisfying the need, and therefore is one of the most important safety factors.

Any emotion can activate fear according to the principle of emotional contagion. According to Tomkins, fear and arousal reactions, due to the similarity of their neurophysiological mechanisms with the mechanisms underlying the emotion of fear, are often activators of the latter. He believes that the basic relationship between the emotions of interest, surprise and fear is due to the similarity of their neurophysiological mechanisms. Tomkins believes that "sudden and complete release from prolonged and intense fear activates joy, while partial release from fear produces arousal." We observe a feedback between fear and arousal when the emotion of interest-excitation develops into fear (Izard K., 1999).

“Research in the 20th century showed that the formation of fears is socially determined. Small child may be terribly afraid of a doll with unprecedented black eyes, but not at all afraid of a train or fire, and parents need to make a certain effort to teach him to be afraid of objects that are truly life-threatening ”(Breslav G., 2004).

Fear (like any other emotion) can be the result of a cognitive evaluation of a situation as potentially dangerous. Tomkins calls this reason "cognitively constructed". Indeed, cognitive processes constitute the most common class of fear activators. So, for example, fear can be caused by the memory of a certain object, a mental image of the object. These cognitive processes quite often reflect not a real threat, but a fictional one, as a result of which a person begins to fear situations that do not pose a real threat, or too many situations, or life in general. The memory of a fear experienced or the expectation of fear itself can be a fear activator. Thus, a person, object or situation can become a source of fear as a result of:

a) formation of hypotheses (imaginary sources of harm);

b) expectation of harm;

c) direct collision with a constructed (imaginary) object of fear.

The mechanisms that prepare a person to perceive a possible threat are extremely useful in terms of adaptation and survival.

Psychiatrist John Bowlby says that certain objects, events and situations tend to arouse fear, that is, they are "natural signals" of danger. Bowlby names only four factors as natural danger signals, namely: pain, loneliness, a sudden change in stimulation, and the rapid approach of an object. These factors are not necessarily innate, internal fear activators, but we seem to be biologically predisposed to respond with fear.

J. Bowley identified two groups of causes of fear: "natural incentives" and "their derivatives." He believes that the innate determinants of fear are associated with situations that do have a high probability of danger. Derived stimuli are more influenced by the culture and context of the situation than are natural stimuli. Bowley considers loneliness to be the deepest and most important cause of fear. He attributes this to the fact that both in childhood and in old age, the likelihood of a danger of getting sick when alone increases significantly. In addition, such natural stimuli of fear as the unfamiliarity of stimulation and its sudden changes are much more frightening against the background of loneliness (Ilyin E.P., 2001. Emotions and feelings).

Pain, the first and most important of the natural activators of fear. Any object, event or situation associated with the experience of pain can become a conditioned stimulus, the re-encounter with which reminds the individual of a past mistake and the experience of pain. However, numerous experiments show that when repeatedly presented with a dangerous object, animals successfully avoid it without showing signs of fear (Ilyin E.P., 2001).

Many scientists also name the factor of darkness as one of the activators of fear. For most people who experience fear in the dark, this feeling is associated with a sense of danger coming from something terrible and invisible. On the basis of the "objective danger" that people have been exposed to at night for many centuries, humanity has endowed darkness with "subjective danger." And thus fear in the dark gradually turned into a more general concept of fear of the dark. True, there are objective reasons why people are so afraid of the dark. Our sense organs are poorly adapted to life in low light conditions: sensitive visual cells - cones - turn off in the evening.

“J. Bowlby considers a sudden approach to the natural activators of fear. Important fear factors in this situation are appearance, size, and the speed at which an object approaches a person. Thus, the rapid approach of an object under certain conditions can serve as a natural danger signal. Such conditions may include: the unusualness of the object, the high speed of its approach, the size of the object, as well as the factor of surprise and surprise ”(Izard K., 1999).

Altitude as a fear activator can also be seen as a natural danger signal. Under certain conditions, and at a certain stage of individual development, children begin to be afraid of heights. The results of the experiments of the American scientist Campos showed that already at the age of four months, children are capable of depth perception. What is known so far is that although children start crawling at different ages (from seven to eleven months), they only develop a fear of heights and falling from heights after three weeks of crawling experience.

Thus, the main factors influencing the emergence of fear are due to biological (heredity) and social (associative learning and social borrowing) influences.

Chapter 6

Overcoming fear, including fear correction, is a very complex process. Ignoring fear will most likely give a negative result. It is more correct to recognize that a person has fear and help him overcome it.

The main method of fear correction is psychotherapy. Gestalt psychology, cognitive, behavioral psychotherapy, psychoanalysis, hypnosis, NLP are used here. During the conversation, the specialist determines which of the methods of work is more suitable for this particular person. He can also combine them with other methods of psychotherapy.

Gestalt psychology is not very suitable for people who like to "dig into themselves" (neurotics). This type of psychology calls the accumulation of unfinished situations one of the reasons for the formation of neuroses. Its main idea is the ability of the psyche to self-regulate, to creative adaptations of the body to environment and the principle of human responsibility for all their actions, intentions and expectations. The main role of the therapist is to focus the person's attention on the awareness of what is happening "here and now".

The main idea of ​​behaviorism is that the behavior of an organism, including emotional behavior, is a learned response. Therefore, the body can be unlearned, or taught in a different way. For example, a phobia, from the point of view of behavioral therapy, is a pathologically conditioned reaction that arose as a result of a situation threatening a person. The cause of the disorder is sought in the patient's present, and the goal of behavioral therapy is to replace the patient's inappropriate behavior with adequate behavior. This type of psychotherapy is usually used for obsessive actions, with obsessive thoughts it is practically useless. The method of immersion (exposure) of a person is introduced several times into a situation that causes obsessive actions or anxiety, while they are asked not to perform actions that they are obliged, in their opinion, to perform in this situation.

Psychoanalysis believes that fear is not a disease, but a guide to real problems, to true human anxieties. The treatment of a phobia in this case is to find its true cause. When talking about a symptom, a person perceives it as part of his being. During psychoanalysis and work around this being, the signs of a phobia lose status.

The symptom becomes a partner for later life and even helps to cope with true reasons heartache.

In cognitive psychotherapy, a system of highly effective technologies, techniques and exercises has been developed aimed at restructuring maladaptive thinking and developing the ability to think more realistically and constructively. The most important advantage of the cognitive direction of treatment of fears is the development of self-regulation skills, i.e. teaching a person some techniques that will allow him to independently cope with newly emerging negative experiences and life problems.

Ways to overcome fear in children have their own specifics. One of the effective methods is the game correction of fears. In the game, there is a comprehension of a new experience of social interaction, the development of imagination and the expansion of the circle of communication, they acquire new knowledge and skills. Children themselves in spontaneous play outlive their fears when they play battles, hide and seek, climb trees, sheds, attics, portray “Cossack robbers”. In a big city, they are often deprived of this. An outdoor game is replaced by intellectual activities, moreover, if the child is the only one, then he, as a rule, is overprotective and cannot express himself emotionally in the game through restrictions and prohibitions, as he would like. Little or no parents play with their children, with whom they also did not play in childhood. Such character traits as lack of communication, internal tension and conflict, dominance and authoritarianism also deprives live communication. Parents of nervous children can be advised to play with their children as much as possible.

Another effective method for correcting fear in children is drawing. Drawing, like a game, is not only a reflection in the minds of children of the social reality surrounding them, but also its modeling, an expression of attitude towards it. Therefore, through drawings, one can better understand the interests of children, their deep, not always disclosed experiences, and take this into account when eliminating fears. Drawing provides a natural opportunity for development, flexibility and plasticity of thinking. Indeed, children who love to draw are more imaginative, immediacy in expressing feelings and flexible in their judgments. They can easily imagine themselves in the place of this or that person and express their attitude towards him, since this happens every time in the process of drawing.

With the help of drawing, it is possible to eliminate the fears generated by the imagination, that is, what has never happened, but can happen in the mind of the child. Then, according to the degree of success, there are fears based on real traumatic events, but which happened quite a long time ago and left an emotional trace that is not very pronounced by now in the child’s memory. There is no need to be afraid of some revival of fears that occurs in the process of drawing, since this is one of the conditions for their complete elimination. It is much worse if they remain with the child, ready to arise at any moment.

Help in overcoming children's fears and modeling. Modeling, as a method of correcting children's fears, is used mainly in senior preschool age. A specific feature of modeling is its close connection with the game. The volume of the completed figurine encourages children to play with it. The teacher offers different topics: good man”, “parents”, as a complication of “blind the whole family”. As a corrective method, “blind and break” is used, the purpose of which is to overcome fear with the help of “physical destruction” of what has been done. The child is offered the topic “blind what scares you or what you are afraid of”, at the end of the modeling, the child is asked a series of questions about the figure made, then it is proposed to crumple the figure into one large piece with both hands.

Conclusion and Conclusions

An analysis of the literature review showed that the problem of fear, although rooted in the distant past, always remains relevant, because as long as a person exists, fear will exist along with him. As society and civilization develop, it will take on new forms, and people will invent new ways to deal with it.

Fear is not only inevitable, but necessary. As you know, fear positive quality when it mobilizes us for some action or stops us. Another thing is that fear can have negative qualities and direct people's actions in a destructive direction. For example, one of the most effective methods of repressing fear is aggressiveness. If a person finds the strength in himself to move from a passive state of fear into an attack, then the painful feeling of fear disappears. This is how wars arise, murders occur, etc.

Fear belongs to the basic emotions of a person, which has a strong impact on various aspects of his life. Formed at the earliest stages of ontogenesis, in the future this feeling accompanies a person throughout his life. Fear is part of our life. A person experiences fear in a variety of situations, but all these situations have one thing in common: they are felt, perceived by a person as situations in which the peace and security of him and those close to him are threatened. In the social development of a person, fear acts as one of the means of education: for example, the formed fear of condemnation is used as a factor in the regulation of behavior. Since in the conditions of society the individual enjoys the protection of legal and other social institutions, an increased tendency to fear loses its adaptive meaning and is traditionally assessed negatively.

It should be noted that rather voluminous works on the study of the emotion of fear were done by K. Izard, C. Spielberger, G. Kaplan and B. Sadok, and other American psychologists. Much space was given this issue in the works of Z. Freud, S. Kierkegaard, F. Riemann, D. Eike, O. Rank, P. Tillik, C. Rycroft, K. Horney, H. Heckhausen, A. Kempinski.

In the course of this course work, it was possible to get acquainted with various definitions and types of fear. In the work, I referred to the definition of the concept of fear by K. Izard: “Fear is a very strong emotion experienced as an alarming premonition, anxiety. Fear is experienced as a feeling of insecurity and uncertainty about one's own safety" (Izard K., 1999).

Analysis of the literature showed that there are several different classifications of fears. These are real fears and neurotic ones; natural fears and social; situational and personally conditioned, age-related fears.

In the course work were considered theoretical directions in the study of the phenomenon of fear. Psychoanalytic direction: Z. Freud's ideas about the nature of fear gives an understanding that the development of fear is closely connected with the system of the unconscious. Behavioralism: John Watson describes fear as a set of responses to a series of external stimuli. Existential logotherapy: V. Frankl on the development of fear and the use of the method of aparadoxical intention in corrective work with fears.

Age-specific features of experiencing fear and factors influencing the emergence of fear were considered and studied. The first experience of fear in a person occurs at birth, which objectively means separation from the mother, and therefore the state of fear is considered as a "reproduction of the trauma of birth."

Thus, the goals and objectives of this course work are fulfilled.

fear age emotion

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