Settlement of the Slavs. Slavs, Wends - the earliest news about the Slavs under the name of Wends, or Venets, dates back to the end of 1-2 thousand AD. e. and belong to Roman and Greek writers - Pliny the Elder, Publius Cornelius Tacitus and Ptolemy Claudius. According to these authors, the Wends lived along the Baltic coast between the Stetinsky Gulf, into which the Odra flows, and the Danzing Gulf, into which the Vistula flows; along the Vistula from its headwaters in the Carpathian Mountains to the coast of the Baltic Sea. The name Veneda comes from the Celtic vindos, which means "white".

By the middle of the VI century. Wends were divided into two main groups: Sklavins (Sclaves) and Antes. As for the later self-name "Slavs", its exact meaning is not known. There are suggestions that the term "Slavs" contains an opposition to another ethnic term - the Germans, derived from the word "mute", that is, speaking an incomprehensible language. The Slavs were divided into three groups:
- oriental;
- southern;
- Western.

Slavic peoples

1. Ilmen Slovenes, the center of which was Novgorod the Great, which stood on the banks of the Volkhov River, which flowed from Lake Ilmen and on whose lands there were many other cities, which is why the Scandinavians neighboring them called the possessions of Slovenes "gardarika", that is, "the land of cities." These were: Ladoga and Beloozero, Staraya Russa and Pskov. The Ilmen Slovenes got their name from the name of Lake Ilmen, which is in their possession and was also called the Slovenian Sea. For residents remote from real seas, the lake, 45 versts long and about 35 wide, seemed huge, which is why it bore its second name - the sea.

2. Krivichi, who lived in the interfluve of the Dnieper, Volga and Western Dvina, around Smolensk and Izborsk, Yaroslavl and Rostov the Great, Suzdal and Murom. Their name came from the name of the founder of the tribe, Prince Kriv, who apparently received the nickname Krivoy, from a natural deficiency. Subsequently, the people called Krivich a person who is insincere, deceitful, capable of prevaricating, from whom you will not expect the truth, but you will encounter falsehood. Moscow subsequently arose on the lands of the Krivichi, but you will read about this later.

3. Polochans settled on the Polot River, at its confluence with the Western Dvina. At the confluence of these two rivers and stood main city tribe - Polotsk, or Polotsk, whose name is also produced by the hydronym: "a river along the border with the Latvian tribes" - lats, years. Dregovichi, Radimichi, Vyatichi and northerners lived to the south and southeast of the Polochans.

4. Dregovichi lived on the banks of the river Accept, getting their name from the words "dregva" and "dryagovina", meaning "swamp". Here were the cities of Turov and Pinsk.

5. Radimichi, who lived in the interfluve of the Dnieper and Sozha, were called by the name of their first prince Radim, or Radimir.

6. The Vyatichi were the easternmost ancient Russian tribe, having received their name, like the Radimichi, on behalf of their progenitor, Prince Vyatko, which was an abbreviated name Vyacheslav. Old Ryazan was located in the land of the Vyatichi.

7. The northerners occupied the rivers of the Desna, the Seimas and the Courts and in ancient times were the northernmost East Slavic tribe. When the Slavs settled as far as Novgorod the Great and Beloozero, they retained their former name, although its original meaning was lost. In their lands there were cities: Novgorod Seversky, Listven and Chernigov.

8. The meadows that inhabited the lands around Kyiv, Vyshgorod, Rodnya, Pereyaslavl were called so from the word "field". The cultivation of the fields became their main occupation, which led to the development of agriculture, cattle breeding and animal husbandry. The glades went down in history as a tribe, to a greater extent than others, contributing to the development of ancient Russian statehood. The neighbors of the glades in the south were Rus, Tivertsy and Ulichi, in the north - the Drevlyans and in the west - the Croats, Volynians and Buzhans.

9. Rus' is the name of one, far from the largest East Slavic tribe, which, because of its name, became the most famous both in the history of mankind and in historical science, because in disputes over its origin, scientists and publicists broke many copies and spilled rivers of ink . Many eminent scientists - lexicographers, etymologists and historians - derive this name from the name of the Normans, Russ, which was almost universally accepted in the 9th-10th centuries. The Normans, known to the Eastern Slavs as the Varangians, conquered Kyiv and the surrounding lands around 882. During their conquests, which took place for 300 years - from the 8th to the 11th centuries - and covered all of Europe - from England to Sicily and from Lisbon to Kiev - they sometimes left their name behind the conquered lands. For example, the territory conquered by the Normans in the north of the Frankish kingdom was called Normandy. Opponents of this point of view believe that the name of the tribe comes from the hydronym - the river Ros, from which later the whole country began to be called Russia. And in the XI-XII centuries, Rus began to be called the lands of Rus, glades, northerners and Radimichi, some territories inhabited by streets and Vyatichi. Supporters of this point of view consider Rus' no longer as a tribal or ethnic union, but as a political state formation.

10. Tivertsy occupied spaces along the banks of the Dniester, from its middle course to the mouth of the Danube and the shores of the Black Sea. The most probable seems to be their origin, their names from the river Tivr, as the ancient Greeks called the Dniester. Their center was the city of Cherven on the western bank of the Dniester. The Tivertsy bordered on the nomadic tribes of the Pechenegs and Polovtsians and, under their blows, retreated to the north, mixing with the Croats and Volynians.

11. The streets were the southern neighbors of the Tivertsy, occupying lands in the Lower Dnieper, on the banks of the Bug and the Black Sea coast. Their main city was Peresechen. Together with the Tivertsy, they retreated to the north, where they mixed with the Croats and Volynians.

12. The Drevlyans lived along the Teterev, Uzh, Uborot and Sviga rivers, in Polissya and on the right bank of the Dnieper. Their main city was Iskorosten on the Uzh River, and besides, there were other cities - Ovruch, Gorodsk, several others, whose names we do not know, but their traces remained in the form of settlements. The Drevlyans were the most hostile East Slavic tribe in relation to the Polans and their allies, who formed the Old Russian state with its center in Kyiv. They were decisive enemies of the first Kiev princes, even killed one of them - Igor Svyatoslavovich, for which the prince of the Drevlyans Mal, in turn, was killed by Igor's widow, Princess Olga. The Drevlyans lived in dense forests, getting their name from the word "tree" - a tree.

13. Croats who lived around the city of Przemysl on the river. San, called themselves white Croats, in contrast to the tribe of the same name with them, who lived in the Balkans. The name of the tribe is derived from the ancient Iranian word "shepherd, guardian of cattle", which may indicate its main occupation - cattle breeding.

14. The Volynians were a tribal association formed on the territory where the Duleb tribe had previously lived. Volynians settled on both banks of the Western Bug and in the upper reaches of the Pripyat. Their main city was Cherven, and after Volyn was conquered by the Kievan princes, a new city, Vladimir-Volynsky, was established on the Luga River in 988, which gave its name to the Vladimir-Volyn principality that formed around it.

15. In addition to the Volhynians, the Buzhans, located on the banks of the Southern Bug, entered the tribal association that arose in the habitat of the Dulebs. There is an opinion that the Volhynians and Buzhans were one tribe, and their independent names came about only due to different habitats. According to written foreign sources, the Buzhans occupied 230 "cities" - most likely, they were fortified settlements, and the Volynians - 70. Be that as it may, these figures indicate that Volyn and the Bug region were rather densely populated.

South Slavs

The southern Slavs included Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, Zakhlumlians, Bulgarians. These Slavic peoples were strongly influenced by the Byzantine Empire, whose lands they settled after predatory raids. In the future, some of them, having mixed with the Turkic-speaking Kachevniks, the Bulgarians, gave rise to the Bulgarian kingdom, the predecessor of modern Bulgaria.

The Eastern Slavs included Polans, Drevlyans, Northerners, Dregovichi, Radimichi, Krivichi, Polochans, Vyatichi, Slovenes, Buzhans, Volhynians, Dulebs, Ulichs, Tivertsy. The advantageous position on the trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks accelerated the development of these tribes. It was this branch of the Slavs that gave rise to the most numerous Slavic peoples - Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians.

Western Slavs are Pomeranians, Obodrichs, Vagrs, Polabs, Smolins, Glinians, Lyutichs, Velets, Ratari, Drevans, Ruyans, Lusatians, Czechs, Slovaks, Koshubs, Slovenians, Moravans, Poles. Military clashes with the Germanic tribes forced them to retreat to the east. The obodrich tribe was especially militant, bringing bloody sacrifices to Perun.

neighboring nations

As for the lands and peoples bordering on the Eastern Slavs, this picture looked like this: Finno-Ugric tribes lived in the north: Cheremis, Chud Zavolochskaya, all, Korela, Chud. These tribes were mainly engaged in hunting and fishing and were at a lower level of development. Gradually, during the settlement of the Slavs to the northeast, most of these peoples were assimilated. To the credit of our ancestors, it should be noted that this process was bloodless and was not accompanied by mass beatings of the conquered tribes. Typical representatives of the Finno-Ugric peoples are the Estonians - the ancestors of modern Estonians.

The Balto-Slavic tribes lived in the northwest: Kors, Zemigola, Zhmud, Yatvingians and Prussians. These tribes were engaged in hunting, fishing and agriculture. They were famous as brave warriors, whose raids terrified their neighbors. They worshiped the same gods as the Slavs, bringing them numerous bloody sacrifices.

In the west, the Slavic world bordered on the Germanic tribes. The relationship between them was very tense and was accompanied by frequent wars. Western Slavs were pushed east, although almost all of East Germany was once inhabited by Slavic tribes of Lusatians and Sorbs.

In the southwest, the Slavic lands bordered on Byzantium. Its Thracian provinces were inhabited by a Romanized Greek-speaking population. Numerous kachevniks settled here, coming from the steppes of Eurasia. Such were the Ugrians, the ancestors of the modern Hungarians, the Goths, the Heruli, the Huns and other nomads.

In the south, in the boundless Eurasian steppes of the Black Sea region, numerous tribes of cattle breeders roamed. Here passed the path of the great migration of peoples. Often, Slavic lands also suffered from their raids. Some tribes, such as Torks or black heels, were allies of the Slavs, others - the Pechenegs, Guzes, Kipchaks, Polovtsy were at enmity with our ancestors.

In the east, the Slavs were adjacent to the Burtases, the related Mordovians and the Volga-Kama Bulgars. The main occupation of the Bulgars was trade along the Volga River with the Arab Caliphate in the south and the Permian tribes in the north. In the lower reaches of the Volga, the lands of the Khazar Kaganate with its capital in the city of Itil were located. The Khazars were at enmity with the Slavs until Prince Svyatoslav destroyed this state.

Occupations and life

The oldest Slavic settlements excavated by archaeologists date back to the 5th-4th centuries BC. The finds obtained during the excavations allow us to reconstruct the picture of people's life: their occupations, way of life, religious beliefs and customs.

The Slavs did not strengthen their settlements in any way and lived in buildings slightly deepened into the soil, or in ground houses, the walls and roof of which were supported on pillars dug into the ground. Pins, brooches, clasps, rings were found on the settlements and in the graves. The discovered ceramics are very diverse - pots, bowls, jugs, goblets, amphoras...

The most characteristic feature of the culture of the Slavs of that time was a kind of funeral ritual: the dead relatives of the Slavs were burned, and heaps of burnt bones were covered with large bell-shaped vessels.

Later, the Slavs, as before, did not fortify their settlements, but sought to build them in hard-to-reach places - in swamps or on high banks of rivers and lakes. They settled mainly in places with fertile soils. We already know much more about their way of life and culture than about their predecessors. They lived in ground pillar houses or semi-dugouts, where stone or adobe hearths and stoves were arranged. They lived in semi-dugouts in the cold season, and in ground buildings - in the summer. In addition to dwellings, household structures and cellar pits were also found.

These tribes were actively engaged in agriculture. Archaeologists during excavations more than once found iron coulters. Often there were grains of wheat, rye, barley, millet, oats, buckwheat, peas, hemp - such crops were cultivated by the Slavs at that time. They also raised livestock - cows, horses, sheep, goats. Among the Wends there were many artisans who worked in iron and pottery workshops. The set of things found in the settlements is rich: various ceramics, brooches, clasps, knives, spears, arrows, swords, scissors, pins, beads...

The funeral ritual was also simple: the burnt bones of the dead were usually poured into a pit, which was then buried, and a simple stone was placed over the grave to mark it.

Thus, the history of the Slavs can be traced far into the depths of time. The formation of the Slavic tribes took a long time, and this process was very complex and confusing.

Archaeological sources from the middle of the first millennium AD are successfully supplemented by written ones. This allows us to more fully imagine the life of our distant ancestors. Written sources report about the Slavs from the first centuries of our era. They are known at first under the name of the Wends; later the 6th century authors Procopius of Caesarea, Mauritius the Strategist and Jordanes give detailed description way of life, occupations and customs of the Slavs, calling them Wends, Ants and Slavs. “These tribes, slavins and antes, are not ruled by one person, but since ancient times they have been living in the rule of the people, and therefore they consider happiness and unhappiness in life to be a common thing,” wrote the Byzantine writer and historian Procopius of Caesarea. Procopius lived in the first half of the 6th century. He was the closest adviser to the commander Belisarius, who led the army of Emperor Justinian I. Together with the troops, Procopius visited many countries, endured the hardships of campaigns, experienced victories and defeats. However, his main business was not to participate in battles, not to recruit mercenaries and not to supply the army. He studied the manners, customs, social order and military methods of the peoples surrounding Byzantium. Procopius also carefully collected stories about the Slavs, and he especially carefully analyzed and described the military tactics of the Slavs, devoting many pages of his famous work “The History of the Wars of Justinian” to it. The slave-owning Byzantine Empire sought to conquer neighboring lands and peoples. The Byzantine rulers also wanted to enslave the Slavic tribes. In their dreams, they saw obedient peoples, regularly paying taxes, supplying slaves, bread, furs, timber, precious metals and stones to Constantinople. At the same time, the Byzantines did not want to fight the enemies themselves, but sought to quarrel them among themselves and, with the help of some, suppress others. In response to attempts to enslave them, the Slavs repeatedly invaded the empire and devastated entire regions. The Byzantine commanders understood that it was difficult to fight the Slavs, and therefore they carefully studied their military affairs, strategy and tactics, and looked for vulnerabilities.

At the end of the 6th and beginning of the 7th century, another ancient author lived, who wrote the essay “Strategikon”. For a long time it was thought that this treatise was created by Emperor Mauritius. However, later scientists came to the conclusion that the "Strategikon" was written not by the emperor, but by one of his generals or advisers. This work is like a textbook for the military. During this period, the Slavs increasingly disturbed Byzantium, so the author paid a lot of attention to them, teaching his readers how to deal with strong northern neighbors.

“They are numerous, hardy,” wrote the author of the “Strategikon”, “they easily endure heat, cold, rain, nakedness, lack of food. They have a large variety of livestock and fruits of the earth. They settle in forests, near impassable rivers, swamps and lakes, arrange many exits in their dwellings due to the dangers that happen to them. They love to fight with their enemies in places overgrown with dense forests, in gorges, on cliffs, they profitably use ambushes, surprise attacks, tricks, day and night, inventing many different ways. They are also experienced in crossing rivers, surpassing all people in this respect. They bravely endure being in the water, while they hold in their mouths specially made large reeds hollowed out inside, reaching the surface of the water, and they themselves, lying on their backs at the bottom of the river, breathe with the help of them ... Each is armed with two small spears, some also have shields . They use wooden bows and small arrows dipped in poison."

The Byzantine was especially struck by the love of freedom of the Slavs. “The tribes of the Antes are similar in their way of life,” he noted, “in their customs, in their love of freedom; they can in no way be persuaded into slavery or submission in their own country.” The Slavs, according to him, are friendly to foreigners arriving in their country, if they come with friendly intentions. They do not take revenge on their enemies either, keeping them in captivity for a short time, and usually offer them either to go to their homeland for a ransom, or to remain to live among the Slavs in the position of free people.

From the Byzantine chronicles the names of some Antes and Slavic leaders are known - Dobrita, Ardagast, Musokia, Progost. Under their leadership, numerous Slavic troops threatened the power of Byzantium. Apparently, it was to such leaders that the famous Ant treasures from the treasures found in the Middle Dnieper belonged. The treasures included expensive Byzantine items made of gold and silver - goblets, jugs, dishes, bracelets, swords, buckles. All this was decorated with the richest ornaments, images of animals. In some treasures, the weight of gold things exceeded 20 kilograms. Such treasures became the prey of the Antes leaders in distant campaigns against Byzantium.

Written sources and archaeological materials testify that the Slavs were engaged in slash-and-burn agriculture, cattle breeding, fishing, hunting animals, picking berries, mushrooms, and roots. Bread has always been difficult for a working person, but slash-and-burn agriculture was perhaps the most difficult. The main tool of the farmer who took up the undercut was not a plow, not a plow, not a harrow, but an ax. Having chosen a site of a high forest, the trees were thoroughly cut down, and for a year they dried up on the vine. Then, having dumped the dry trunks, they burned the plot - they arranged a raging fiery "fall". They uprooted the unburned remains of thick stumps, leveled the ground, loosened it with a plow. They sowed directly into the ashes, scattering the seeds with their hands. In the first 2-3 years, the harvest was very high, the land fertilized with ash gave birth generously. But then it was depleted and it was necessary to look for a new site, where the whole difficult process of cutting was repeated again. There was no other way to grow bread in the forest zone at that time - the whole land was covered with large and small forests, from which for a long time - for centuries - the peasant conquered the arable land piece by piece.

The Ants had their own metalworking craft. This is evidenced by the casting molds found near the city of Vladimir-Volynsky, clay spoons, with the help of which molten metal was poured. The Ants were actively engaged in trade, exchanging furs, honey, wax for various decorations, expensive dishes, and weapons. They swam not only along the rivers, they also went out to sea. In the 7th-8th centuries, Slavic squads on boats plowed the waters of the Black and other seas.

The oldest Russian chronicle - "The Tale of Bygone Years" tells us about the gradual settlement of Slavic tribes over vast areas of Europe.

“In the same way, those Slavs came and settled along the Dnieper and called themselves a glade, and other Drevlyans, since they live in forests; while others sat down between Pripyat and the Dvina and were called Dregovichi ... ”Further, the chronicle speaks of the Polochans, Slovenes, northerners, Krivichi, Radimichi, Vyatichi. "And so the Slavic language spread and the letter was called Slavic."

The Polyans settled on the Middle Dnieper and later became one of the most powerful East Slavic tribes. A city arose in their land, which later became the first capital of the Old Russian state - Kyiv.

So, by the 9th century, the Slavs settled in the vast expanses of Eastern Europe. Within their society, based on patriarchal-tribal foundations, the prerequisites for the creation of a feudal state gradually matured.

As for the life of the Slavic eastern tribes, the initial chronicler left us the following news about him: "... each lived with his own family, separately, in his own place, each owned his own family." We have now almost lost the meaning of gender, we still have derivative words - relatives, kinship, relative, we have limited concept families, but our ancestors did not know the family, they knew only the genus, which meant the totality of degrees of kinship, both the closest and the most distant; clan also meant the totality of relatives and each of them; Initially, our ancestors did not understand any social connection outside the clan, and therefore used the word "clan" also in the sense of a compatriot, in the sense of a people; the word tribe was used to denote ancestral lines. The unity of the clan, the connection of the tribes was supported by a single ancestor, these ancestors had different names - elders, zhupans, lords, princes, etc.; the last name, apparently, was especially used by the Russian Slavs and, according to word production, has a generic meaning, meaning the eldest in the family, the ancestor, the father of the family.

The vastness and virginity of the country inhabited by the Eastern Slavs gave relatives the opportunity to move out at the first new displeasure, which, of course, should have weakened the strife; there was plenty of room, at least there was no need to quarrel over it. But it could happen that the special conveniences of the area tied relatives to it and did not allow them to move out so easily - this could especially happen in cities, places chosen by the family for special convenience and fenced, fortified by the common efforts of relatives and entire generations; consequently, in the cities, the strife must have been stronger. About the urban life of the Eastern Slavs, from the words of the chronicler, one can only conclude that these enclosed places were the abode of one or several separate clans. Kyiv, according to the chronicler, was the dwelling of the family; when describing the internecine strife that preceded the calling of the princes, the chronicler says that the clan stood up against the clan; from this it is clearly seen how developed the social structure was, it is clear that before the calling of the princes it had not yet crossed the tribal line; the first sign of communication between separate clans living together should have been common gatherings, councils, veche, but at these gatherings we also see after some elders who have all the meaning; that these vechas, gatherings of foremen, ancestors could not satisfy the social need that arose, the need of the outfit, could not create ties between the contiguous clans, give them unity, weaken the tribal identity, tribal egoism - the proof is tribal strife, ending in the calling of princes.

Despite the fact that the original Slavic city is of great historical importance: city life, like life together, was much higher than the scattered life of childbirth in special places, in cities more frequent clashes, more frequent strife should have rather led to the realization of the need for an outfit, a government start . The question remains: what was the relationship between these cities and the population living outside them, was this population independent of the city or subordinated to it? It is natural to assume that the city was the first stay of settlers, from where the population spread throughout the country: the clan appeared in a new country, settled in a convenient place, fenced off for greater security, and then, as a result of the reproduction of its members, filled the entire surrounding country; if we assume the eviction from the cities of the younger members of the clan or clans living there, then it is necessary to assume connection and subordination, subordination, of course, tribal - younger to elders; we shall see clear traces of this subordination later in the relations of the new towns or suburbs to the old towns from which they received their population.

But besides these tribal relations, the connection and subordination of the rural population to the urban one could also be strengthened for other reasons: the rural population was scattered, the urban population was copulated, and therefore the latter always had the opportunity to reveal its influence over the former; in case of danger, the rural population could find protection in the city, necessarily adjoined the latter, and for this reason alone could not maintain an equal position with it. We find an indication of such an attitude of cities to the district population in the annals: for example, it is said that the family of the founders of Kyiv held a reign among the glades. But on the other hand, we cannot assume great accuracy, certainty in these relations, because even after, in historical time, as we will see, the relationship of the suburbs to the older city did not differ in certainty, and therefore, speaking about the subordination of villages to cities, about the connection of clans between themselves, their dependence on one center, we must strictly distinguish this subordination, connection, dependence in pre-Rurik times from subordination, connection and dependence, which began to assert themselves little by little after the calling of the Varangian princes; if the villagers considered themselves junior relative to the townspeople, then it is easy to understand to what extent they recognized themselves as dependent on the latter, what significance the foreman of the city had for them.

There were, apparently, few cities: we know that the Slavs liked to live absent-mindedly, according to clans, to which forests and swamps served instead of cities; all the way from Novgorod to Kyiv, along the course of a large river, Oleg found only two cities - Smolensk and Lyubech; the Drevlyans mention cities other than Korosten; in the south there should have been more cities, there was more need for protection from the invasion of wild hordes, and because the place was open; the Tivertsy and Uglichs had cities that were preserved even in the time of the chronicler; in the middle lane - among the Dregovichi, Radimichi, Vyatichi - there is no mention of cities.

In addition to the advantages that a city (i.e., a fenced place within whose walls one numerous or several separate clans live) could have over the district scattered population, it could, of course, happen that one clan, the strongest in material resources, received an advantage over other clans. that the prince, the head of one clan, in his personal qualities, got the upper hand over the princes of other clans. Thus, among the southern Slavs, of whom the Byzantines say that they have many princelings and no single sovereign, sometimes there are princes who, by their personal merits, stand out ahead, such as, for example, the famous Lavritas. So we have in famous story about Olga’s revenge among the Drevlyans, at first Prince Mal appears in the foreground, but we note that here it is still impossible to accept Mal as the prince of the entire Drevlyan land, it can be accepted that he was only the prince of Korosten; that only Korostenians under the predominant influence of Mal took part in the murder of Igor, while the rest of the Drevlyans took their side after a clear unity of benefits, this is directly indicated by the legend: “Olga, rush with her son to Iskorosten city, as if they had killed her husband byahu.” Mal, as the main instigator, was also sentenced to marry Olga; the existence of other princes, other rulers of the land, is indicated by the legend in the words of the Drevlyansk ambassadors: “Our princes are kind, even they have destroyed the essence of the Derevsky land,” this is also evidenced by the silence that the chronicle keeps about Mala throughout the entire struggle with Olga.

Tribal life stipulated common, inseparable property, and, conversely, community, inseparability of property served as the strongest bond for members of the clan, the separation also required the termination of the clan connection.

Foreign writers say that the Slavs lived in crappy huts, located at a great distance from each other, and often changed their place of residence. Such fragility and frequent change of dwellings were the result of the constant danger that threatened the Slavs both from their own tribal strife and from the invasions of alien peoples. That is why the Slavs led the way of life that Mauritius speaks of: “They have inaccessible dwellings in forests, near rivers, swamps and lakes; in their houses they arrange many exits just in case; they hide the necessary things under the ground, having nothing superfluous outside, but living like robbers.

The same cause, acting for a long time, produced the same effects; life in constant expectation of enemy attacks continued for the Eastern Slavs even when they were already under the power of the princes of Rurik's house, the Pechenegs and Polovtsy replaced the Avars, Kozars and other barbarians, the princely strife replaced the strife of the clans that rebelled against each other, therefore, could not disappear and the habit of changing places, running from the enemy; that is why the people of Kiev tell the Yaroslavichs that if the princes do not protect them from the wrath of their elder brother, they will leave Kyiv and go to Greece.

The Polovtsy were replaced by the Tatars, princely feuds continued in the north, as soon as princely feuds begin, the people leave their homes, and with the cessation of strife, they return back; in the south, incessant raids strengthen the Cossacks, and after that, in the north, dispersing scattered from any kind of violence and severity was nothing for the inhabitants; at the same time, it must be added that the nature of the country greatly favored such migrations. The habit of being content with little and always being ready to leave the dwelling supported in the Slav an aversion to an alien yoke, as Mauritius noted.

Tribal life, which stipulated disunity, enmity and, consequently, weakness between the Slavs, also necessarily determined the manner of waging war: not having one common leader and being at enmity with each other, the Slavs avoided any correct battles, where they would have to fight with united forces on flat and open areas. They loved to fight enemies in narrow, impassable places, if they attacked, they attacked in a raid, suddenly, by cunning, they loved to fight in the forests, where they lured the enemy to flight, and then, returning, inflicted a defeat on him. That is why the emperor Mauritius advises attacking the Slavs in winter, when it is inconvenient for them to hide behind bare trees, snow prevents the movement of the fugitives, and then they have little food supplies.

The Slavs were especially distinguished by the art of swimming and hiding in rivers, where they could stay much longer than people of another tribe, they kept under water, lying on their backs and holding a hollowed out reed in their mouths, the top of which went out along the surface of the river and thus conducted air to the hidden swimmer. The armament of the Slavs consisted of two small spears, some had shields, hard and very heavy, they also used wooden bows and small arrows smeared with poison, very effective if a skilled doctor did not give an ambulance to the wounded.

We read in Procopius that the Slavs, entering the battle, did not put on armor, some did not even have a cloak or shirt, only ports; In general, Procopius does not praise the Slavs for their neatness, he says that, like the Massagetae, they are covered with dirt and all kinds of uncleanness. Like all nations living in the simplicity of life, the Slavs were healthy, strong, easily endured cold and heat, lack of clothing and food.

Contemporaries say about the appearance of the ancient Slavs that they all look alike: they are tall, stately, their skin is not completely white, their hair is long, dark blond, their face is reddish

Dwelling of the Slavs

In the south, in the Kyiv land and around it, during the time of the Old Russian state, the main type of dwelling was a semi-dugout. They began to build it by digging a large square pit-pit about a meter deep. Then, along the walls of the pit, they began to build a frame, or walls of thick blocks, reinforced with pillars dug into the ground. The log house also rose from the ground by a meter, and the total height of the future dwelling with the aboveground and underground parts thus reached 2-2.5 meters. On the south side, an entrance was arranged in the log house with earthen steps or a ladder leading into the depths of the dwelling. Having put a log house, they took up the roof. It was made gable, like in modern huts. They were densely covered with boards, a layer of straw was applied on top, and then a thick layer of earth. The walls that towered above the ground were also sprinkled with soil taken out of the pit, so that wooden structures were not visible from the outside. Earthen backfill helped keep the house warm, retained water, protected from fires. The floor in the semi-dugout was made of well-trodden clay, but boards were usually not laid.

Having finished with the construction, they took up another important job - they were building a furnace. They arranged it in the depths, in the corner farthest from the entrance. They made stone stoves, if there was any stone in the vicinity of the city, or clay. Usually they were rectangular, about a meter by a meter in size, or round, gradually tapering upwards. Most often in such a stove there was only one hole - a firebox through which firewood was laid and smoke went straight into the room, warming it. On top of the stove, sometimes an earthenware brazier was arranged, similar to a huge clay pan tightly connected to the stove itself - food was cooked on it. And sometimes, instead of a brazier, a hole was made at the top of the oven - pots were inserted there, in which stew was cooked. Benches were set up along the walls of the semi-dugout, and plank beds were put together.

Life in such a dwelling was not easy. The dimensions of the semi-dugouts are small - 12-15 square meters, in bad weather water oozed inside, cruel smoke constantly corroded the eyes, and daylight entered the room only when the small front door was opened. Therefore, Russian craftsmen woodworkers persistently looked for ways to improve their homes. We tried different methods, dozens of ingenious options, and gradually, step by step, we achieved our goal.

In the south of Rus', they worked hard to improve the semi-dugouts. Already in the X-XI centuries, they became taller and more spacious, as if grown out of the ground. But the main finding was elsewhere. In front of the entrance to the semi-dugout, they began to build light vestibules, wicker or plank. Now the cold air from the street no longer fell directly into the dwelling, but before it warmed up a little in the hallway. And the stove-heater was moved from the back wall to the opposite, the one where the entrance was. Hot air and smoke from it now exited through the door, simultaneously warming the room, in the depths of which it became cleaner and more comfortable. And in some places, clay chimneys have already appeared. But the most decisive step was taken by ancient Russian folk architecture in the north - in Novgorod, Pskov, Tver, Polissya and other lands.

Here, already in the 9th-10th centuries, dwellings became ground-based and log huts quickly replaced semi-dugouts. This was explained not only by abundance pine forests- a building material accessible to all, but also other conditions, for example, the close occurrence of groundwater, from which constant dampness dominated in semi-dugouts, which forced them to be abandoned.

Log buildings were, firstly, much more spacious than semi-dugouts: 4-5 meters long and 5-6 meters wide. And there were simply huge ones: 8 meters long and 7 wide. Mansions! The size of the log house was limited only by the length of the logs that could be found in the forest, and the pines grew tall!

Log cabins, like semi-dugouts, were covered with a roof with earthen backfill, and then they did not arrange any ceilings in the houses. The huts were often adjoined on two or even three sides by light galleries connecting two or even three separate residential buildings, workshops, storerooms. Thus, it was possible, without going outside, to go from one room to another.

In the corner of the hut there was a stove - almost the same as in a semi-dugout. They heated it, as before, in a black way: the smoke from the firebox went straight into the hut, rose up, giving off heat to the walls and ceiling, and went out through the smoke hole in the roof and high-lying narrow windows to the outside. Having heated the hut, the hole-smoke flue and small windows were closed with latches. Only in rich houses the windows were mica or - quite rarely - glass.

Soot caused a lot of inconvenience to the inhabitants of the houses, first settling on the walls and ceiling, and then falling from there in large flakes. In order to somehow fight the black "bulk", wide shelves were arranged at a two-meter height above the benches that stood along the walls. It was on them that the soot fell, without disturbing those sitting on the benches, which was regularly removed.

But smoke! Here is the main problem. “I couldn’t endure the smoky sorrows,” exclaimed Daniil the Sharpener, “you can’t see the heat!” How to deal with this all-pervading scourge? Craftsmen builders have found a way out, alleviating the situation. They began to make the huts very high - 3-4 meters from the floor to the roof, much higher than those old huts that have survived in our villages. With skillful use of the stove, the smoke in such high mansions rose under the roof, and below the air remained slightly smoky. The main thing is to heat the hut well by night. A thick earthen backfill did not allow heat to escape through the roof, the upper part of the log house warmed up well during the day. Therefore, it was there, at a height of two meters, that they began to arrange spacious beds on which the whole family slept. During the day, when the stove was heated and the smoke filled the upper half of the hut, there was no one on the floors - life went on downstairs, where Fresh air from the street. And in the evening, when the smoke came out, the beds turned out to be the warmest and most comfortable place ... This is how a simple person lived.

And who is richer, built a more complicated hut, hired the best craftsmen. In a spacious and very high log house - the longest trees were chosen for it in the surrounding forests - they made another log wall that divided the hut into two unequal parts. In the larger one, everything was like in a simple house - the servants stoked the black stove, the acrid smoke rose up and warmed the walls. He also warmed the wall that separated the hut. And this wall gave off heat to the next compartment, where a bedroom was arranged on the second floor. Even though it was not as hot here as in the smoky neighboring room, but there was no “smoky sorrow” at all. Smooth, calm warmth flowed from the log partition wall, which also exuded a pleasant resinous smell. Clean and comfortable quarters turned out! They decorated them, like the whole house outside, with wooden carvings. And the richest did not skimp on the color paintings, they invited skilled painters. Cheerful and bright, fabulous beauty sparkled on the walls!

House after house stood up on the city streets, one more intricate than the other. The number of Russian cities also multiplied rapidly, but one thing is worth mentioning in particular. Back in the 11th century, a fortified settlement arose on the twenty-meter Borovitsky Hill, which crowned a pointed cape at the confluence of the Neglinnaya River with the Moscow River. The hill, divided by natural folds into separate sections, was convenient for both settlement and defense. Sandy and loamy soils contributed to the fact that rainwater from the vast top of the hill immediately rolled into rivers, the land was dry and suitable for various construction.

Steep fifteen-meter cliffs protected the village from the north and south - from the side of the Neglinnaya and Moskva rivers, and in the east it was fenced off from the adjacent spaces by a rampart and a moat. The first fortress of Moscow was wooden and disappeared from the face of the earth many centuries ago. Archaeologists managed to find its remains - log fortifications, ditches, ramparts with a palisade on the ridges. The first detinets occupied only a small piece of the modern Moscow Kremlin.

The place chosen by the ancient builders was exceptionally successful not only from the military and construction points of view.

In the southeast, right from the city fortifications, a wide Podil descended to the Moskva River, where trading rows were located, and on the shore - constantly expanding moorings. Visible from afar to boats sailing along the Moscow River, the town quickly became a favorite trading place for many merchants. Craftsmen settled in it, acquired workshops - blacksmith, weaving, dyeing, shoemaking, jewelry. The number of builders-woodworkers increased: both a fortress should be built, and a fence should be built, piers should be built, streets should be paved with wooden chopping blocks, houses, shopping arcades and temples of God should be rebuilt ...

The early Moscow settlement grew rapidly, and the first line of earthen fortifications, built in the 11th century, soon found itself inside the expanding city. Therefore, when the city had already occupied a large part of the hill, new, more powerful and extensive fortifications were erected.

By the middle of the 12th century, the city, already completely rebuilt, began to play an important role in the defense of the growing Vladimir-Suzdal land. Increasingly, princes and governors with squads appear in the border fortress, regiments stop before campaigns.

In 1147 the fortress was first mentioned in chronicles. Prince Yuri Dolgoruky arranged a military council here with the allied princes. “Come to me, brother, in Moscow,” he wrote to his relative Svyatoslav Olegovich. By this time, the city, through the efforts of Yuri, was already very well fortified, otherwise the prince would not have dared to gather his comrades-in-arms here: the time was turbulent. Then no one knew, of course, the great fate of this modest city.

In the XIII century, it will be twice wiped off the face of the earth by the Tatar-Mongols, but will be revived and will begin slowly at first, and then gain strength faster and more energetically. No one knew that the small border village of the Vladimir principality would become the heart of Rus' revived after the Horde invasion.

No one knew that it would become a great city on earth and the eyes of mankind would turn to it!

The customs of the Slavs

Caring for a child began long before he was born. From time immemorial, the Slavs tried to protect expectant mothers from all sorts of dangers, including supernatural ones.

But now the time has come for the child to be born. The ancient Slavs believed that birth, like death, breaks the invisible boundary between the worlds of the dead and the living. It is clear that such a dangerous business had no reason to take place near a human dwelling. Among many peoples, a woman in labor retired to the forest or to the tundra so as not to harm anyone. Yes, and the Slavs usually gave birth not in the house, but in another room, most often in a well-heated bathhouse. And in order for the mother's body to open more easily and release the child, the woman's hair was untwisted, in the hut the doors and chests were opened, the knots were untied, and the locks were opened. Our ancestors also had a custom similar to the so-called kuvada of the peoples of Oceania: the husband often screamed and moaned instead of his wife. For what? The meaning of the kuvada is extensive, but, among other things, the researchers write: in this way, the husband aroused the possible attention of evil forces, distracting them from the woman in labor!

Ancient people considered the name an important part of the human personality and preferred to keep it secret so that the evil sorcerer could not “take” the name and use it to induce damage. Therefore, in ancient times, the real name of a person was usually known only to parents and a few closest people. All the rest called him by the name of the family or by a nickname, usually of a protective nature: Nekras, Nezhdan, Nezhelan.

The pagan under no circumstances should have said: “I am such and such”, because he could not be completely sure that his new acquaintance deserved full trust, that he was a person in general, and an evil spirit to me. At first, he answered evasively: “They call me ...” And even better, even if it was not said by him, but by someone else.

growing up

Children's clothing Ancient Rus', both for boys and girls, consisted of one shirt. Moreover, not sewn from a new canvas, but always from the old clothes of the parents. And it's not about poverty or stinginess. It was simply believed that the child was not yet strong both in body and soul - let the parental clothes protect him, protect him from damage, the evil eye, evil witchcraft ... boys and girls received the right to adult clothes, not just reaching a certain age, but only when could prove their “maturity” by deed.

When a boy began to become a young man, and a girl - a girl, it was time for them to move into the next "quality", from the category of "children" to the category of "youth" - future brides and grooms, ready for family responsibility and procreation. But bodily, physical maturation still meant little in itself. I had to pass the test. It was a kind of maturity test, physical and spiritual. The young man had to endure severe pain, taking a tattoo or even a brand with the signs of his family and tribe, of which he became a full member from now on. For the girls, too, there were trials, although not so painful. Their goal is to confirm maturity, the ability to freely express will. And most importantly, both were subjected to the ritual of "temporary death" and "resurrection".

So, the old children "died", and instead of them, new adults were "born". In ancient times, they also received new “adult” names, which, again, outsiders should not have known. They also handed out new adult clothes: for boys - men's pants, for girls - poneva, a kind of checkered skirts that were worn over a shirt on a belt.

This is how adulthood began.

Wedding

In all fairness, researchers call an old Russian wedding a very complex and very beautiful performance that lasted several days. Each of us saw the wedding, at least in the movies. But how many people know why at a wedding the main character, the center of everyone's attention, is the bride, and not the groom? Why is she wearing a white dress? Why is she wearing a photo?

The girl had to "die" in her former family and "be born again" in another, already married, "manly" woman. These are the complex transformations that took place with the bride. Hence the increased attention to her, which we now see at weddings, and the custom of taking the husband's surname, because the surname is a sign of the family.

What about the white dress? Sometimes you have to hear that it, they say, symbolizes the purity and modesty of the bride, but this is wrong. In fact, white is the color of mourning. Yes exactly. Black in this capacity appeared relatively recently. White, according to historians and psychologists, has been for mankind the color of the Past, the color of Memory and Oblivion since ancient times. From time immemorial, such importance was attached to it in Rus'. And another "mourning-wedding" color was ... red, "black", as it was also called. It has long been included in the attire of brides.

Now about the veil. More recently, this word simply meant "handkerchief." Not the current transparent muslin, but a real thick scarf, which tightly covered the bride's face. Indeed, from the moment of consent to marriage, she was considered “dead”, the inhabitants of the World of the Dead, as a rule, are invisible to the living. No one could see the bride, and violation of the ban led to all sorts of misfortunes and even to untimely death, because in this case the border was violated and the Dead World “broke through” into ours, threatening with unpredictable consequences ... For the same reason, the young took each other by the hand exclusively through handkerchief, and also did not eat or drink throughout the wedding: after all, at that moment they “were in different worlds”, and only people belonging to the same world, moreover, to the same group, can touch each other, and even more so, eat together , only "their" ...

At the Russian wedding, many songs sounded, moreover, mostly sad ones. The heavy veil of the bride gradually swelled from sincere tears, even if the girl was walking for her beloved. And the point here is not in the difficulties of living married in the old days, or rather, not only in them. The bride left her family and moved to another. Therefore, she left the spiritual patrons of the former kind and handed herself over to new ones. But there is no need to offend and annoy the former, to look ungrateful. So the girl cried, listening to plaintive songs and trying her best to show her devotion to her parental home, her former relatives and her supernatural patrons - deceased ancestors, and in even more distant times - totem, a mythical progenitor animal ...

Funeral

Traditional Russian funerals contain a huge number of rituals designed to pay the last tribute to the deceased and at the same time win, drive away the hated Death. And to the departed promise resurrection, new life. And all these rituals, partly preserved to this day, are of pagan origin.

Feeling the approach of death, the old man asked his sons to take him out into the field and bowed on all four sides: “Mother damp Earth, forgive and accept! And you, free light-father, forgive me if you offended me ... ”then he lay down on a bench in the holy corner, and his sons dismantled the earthen roof of the hut over him, so that the soul would fly out more easily, so that the body would not torment. And also - so that she doesn’t take it into her head to stay in the house, disturb the living ...

When a noble man died, widowed or not having time to marry, a girl often went to the grave with him - a “posthumous wife”.

In the legends of many peoples close to the Slavs, a bridge to pagan paradise is mentioned, a wonderful bridge, which only the souls of the kind, courageous and just are able to cross. According to scientists, the Slavs also had such a bridge. We see it in the sky on clear nights. Now we call it the Milky Way. The most righteous people without interference fall through it directly into the bright iriy. Deceivers, vile rapists and murderers fall down from the star bridge - into the darkness and cold of the Lower World. And for others who managed to do good and bad things in earthly life, it helps to cross the bridge true friend- shaggy black dog ...

Now they consider it worthy to talk about the deceased necessarily with sadness, this is what serves as a sign of eternal memory and love. Meanwhile, this was not always the case. Already in the Christian era, a legend was recorded about inconsolable parents who dreamed of their dead daughter. She could hardly keep up with the other righteous people, as she had to carry two full buckets with her all the time. What was in those buckets? Tears of parents...

You can also remember. That a commemoration - an event that would seem to be purely sad - even now very often ends in a cheerful and noisy feast, where something mischievous is remembered about the deceased. Think about what laughter is. Laughter is the best weapon against fear, and humanity has long understood this. The ridiculed Death is not terrible, laughter drives it away, as Light drives Darkness away, makes it give way to Life. Cases are described by ethnographers. When a mother started dancing at the bedside of a seriously ill child. It's simple: Death will appear, see the fun and decide that "the wrong address." Laughter is a victory over Death, laughter is a new life...

crafts

Ancient Rus' in the medieval world was widely famous for its craftsmen. At first, among the ancient Slavs, the craft was domestic in nature - everyone dressed skins for themselves, tanned leather, weaved linen, sculpted pottery, made weapons and tools. Then the artisans began to engage only in a certain trade, preparing the products of their labor for the entire community, and the rest of its members provided them with agricultural products, furs, fish, and animals. And already in the period of the early Middle Ages, the production of products on the market began. At first it was custom-made, and then the goods began to go on free sale.

Talented and skilled metallurgists, blacksmiths, jewelers, potters, weavers, stone-cutters, shoemakers, tailors, representatives of dozens of other professions lived and worked in Russian cities and large villages. These ordinary people made an invaluable contribution to the creation of the economic power of Rus', its high material and spiritual culture.

The names of the ancient artisans, with few exceptions, are unknown to us. Objects preserved from those distant times speak for them. These are both rare masterpieces and everyday things, in which talent and experience, skill and ingenuity are invested.

blacksmith craft

Blacksmiths were the first ancient Russian professional artisans. The blacksmith in epics, legends and fairy tales is the personification of strength and courage, goodness and invincibility. Iron was then smelted from swamp ores. Ore was mined in autumn and spring. It was dried, fired and taken to metal-smelting workshops, where metal was obtained in special furnaces. During excavations of ancient Russian settlements, slags are often found - waste products of the metal-smelting process - and pieces of ferruginous bloom, which, after vigorous forging, became iron masses. The remains of blacksmith workshops were also found, where parts of forges were found. The burials of ancient blacksmiths are known, in which their tools of production - anvils, hammers, tongs, chisels - were placed in their graves.

Old Russian blacksmiths supplied plowmen with coulters, sickles, scythes, and warriors with swords, spears, arrows, battle axes. Everything that was necessary for the economy - knives, needles, chisels, awls, staples, fish hooks, locks, keys and many other tools and household items - were made by talented craftsmen.

Old Russian blacksmiths achieved special art in the production of weapons. Items found in the burials of Chernaya Mohyla in Chernigov, necropolises in Kyiv and other cities are unique examples of ancient Russian crafts of the 10th century.

A necessary part of the costume and attire of an ancient Russian person, both women and men, were various jewelry and amulets made by jewelers from silver and bronze. That is why clay crucibles, in which silver, copper, and tin were melted, are often found in ancient Russian buildings. Then the molten metal was poured into limestone, clay or stone molds, where the relief of the future decoration was carved. After that, an ornament in the form of dots, cloves, circles was applied to the finished product. Various pendants, belt plaques, bracelets, chains, temporal rings, rings, neck torcs - these are the main types of products of ancient Russian jewelers. For jewelry, jewelers used various techniques - niello, granulation, filigree filigree, embossing, enamel.

The blackening technique was rather complicated. First, a “black” mass was prepared from a mixture of silver, lead, copper, sulfur and other minerals. Then this composition was applied to bracelets, crosses, rings and other jewelry. Most often depicted griffins, lions, birds with human heads, various fantastic animals.

Graining required completely different methods of work: small silver grains, each of which was 5-6 times smaller than a pinhead, were soldered to the smooth surface of the product. What labor and patience, for example, was worth soldering 5,000 such grains to each of the kolts that were found during excavations in Kyiv! Most often, granulation is found on typical Russian jewelry - lunnitsa, which were pendants in the form of a crescent.

If instead of grains of silver, patterns of the finest silver, gold wires or strips were soldered onto the product, then a filigree was obtained. From such threads-wires, sometimes an incredibly intricate pattern was created.

The technique of embossing on thin gold or silver sheets was also used. They were strongly pressed against a bronze matrix with the desired image, and it was transferred to a metal sheet. Embossing performed images of animals on kolts. Usually it is a lion or a leopard with a raised paw and a flower in its mouth. Cloisonne enamel became the pinnacle of ancient Russian jewelry craftsmanship.

The enamel mass was glass with lead and other additives. Enamels were of different colors, but red, blue and green were especially loved in Rus'. Enamel jewelry went through a difficult path before becoming the property of a medieval fashionista or a noble person. First, the entire pattern was applied to the future decoration. Then a thin sheet of gold was applied to it. Partitions were cut from gold, which were soldered to the base along the contours of the pattern, and the spaces between them were filled with molten enamel. The result was an amazing set of colors that played and shone under the sun's rays in different colors and shades. The centers for the production of jewelry from cloisonné enamel were Kyiv, Ryazan, Vladimir...

And in Staraya Ladoga, in the layer of the 8th century, an entire industrial complex was discovered during excavations! The ancient Ladoga residents built a pavement of stones - iron slags, blanks, production wastes, fragments of foundry molds were found on it. Scientists believe that a metal-smelting furnace once stood here. The richest treasure trove of handicraft tools, found here, is apparently associated with this workshop. The hoard contains twenty-six items. These are seven small and large pliers - they were used in jewelry and iron processing. A miniature anvil was used to make jewelry. An ancient locksmith actively used chisels - three of them were found here. Sheets of metal were cut with jewelry scissors. Drills made holes in the tree. Iron objects with holes were used to draw wire in the production of nails and rook rivets. Jewelry hammers, anvils for chasing and embossing ornaments on silver and bronze jewelry were also found. Finished products of an ancient craftsman were also found here - a bronze ring with images of a human head and birds, rook rivets, nails, an arrow, knife blades.

Finds at the settlement of Novotroitsky, in Staraya Ladoga and other settlements excavated by archaeologists indicate that already in the 8th century the craft began to become an independent branch of production and was gradually separated from agriculture. This circumstance was of great importance in the process of the formation of classes and the creation of the state.

If for the 8th century we know so far only a few workshops, and in general the craft was of a domestic nature, then in the next, 9th century, their number increases significantly. Masters now produce products not only for themselves, their families, but for the entire community. Long-distance trade relations are gradually strengthening, various products are sold on the market in exchange for silver, furs, agricultural products and other goods.

In the ancient Russian settlements of the 9th-10th centuries, archaeologists have unearthed workshops for the production of pottery, foundry, jewelry, bone carving and others. The improvement of labor tools, the invention of new technology made it possible for individual members of the community to produce alone various things necessary for the household, in such quantities that they could be sold.

The development of agriculture and the separation of crafts from it, the weakening of tribal ties within communities, the growth of property inequality, and then the emergence of private property - the enrichment of some at the expense of others - all this formed a new mode of production - feudal. Together with him, the early feudal state gradually arose in Rus'.

Pottery

If we start leafing through thick volumes of inventories of finds from archaeological excavations of cities, towns and burial grounds of Ancient Rus', we will see that the bulk of the materials are fragments of clay vessels. They stored food supplies, water, cooked food. Unpretentious clay pots accompanied the dead, they were smashed at feasts. Pottery in Rus' has passed a long and difficult path of development. In the 9th-10th centuries, our ancestors used hand-made ceramics. At first, only women were engaged in its production. Sand, small shells, pieces of granite, quartz were mixed with clay, sometimes fragments of broken ceramics and plants were used as additives. Impurities made clay dough strong and viscous, which made it possible to make vessels of various shapes.

But already in the 9th century, an important technical improvement appeared in the South of Rus' - the potter's wheel. Its spread led to the isolation of a new craft specialty from other work. Pottery is passed from the hands of women to male artisans. The simplest potter's wheel was fixed on a rough wooden bench with a hole. An axle was inserted into the hole, holding a large wooden circle. A piece of clay was placed on it, having previously sprinkled ash or sand on the circle so that the clay could easily be separated from the tree. The potter sat on a bench, rotated the circle with his left hand, and formed the clay with his right. Such was the hand-made potter's wheel, and later another appeared, which was rotated with the help of the feet. This freed up a second hand to work with clay, which significantly improved the quality of the manufactured dishes and increased labor productivity.

In different regions of Rus', dishes of different shapes were prepared, and they also changed over time.
This allows archaeologists to accurately determine in which Slavic tribe this or that pot was made, to find out the time of its manufacture. On the bottoms of the pots were often stamped - crosses, triangles, squares, circles, etc. geometric figures. Sometimes there are images of flowers, keys. The finished dishes were fired in special kilns. They consisted of two tiers - firewood was placed in the lower one, and ready-made vessels were laid in the upper one. Between the tiers, a clay partition was arranged with holes through which hot air flowed upward. The temperature inside the forge exceeded 1200 degrees.
Vessels made by ancient Russian potters are diverse - these are huge pots for storing grain and other supplies, thick pots for cooking food on fire, frying pans, bowls, krinks, mugs, miniature ritual utensils and even toys for children. Vessels were decorated with ornaments. The most common was a linear-wavy pattern; decorations in the form of circles, dimples, and denticles are known.

For centuries, the art and skill of ancient Russian potters has been developed, and therefore it has reached high perfection. Metalworking and pottery were perhaps the most important of the crafts. In addition to them, weaving, leather and tailoring, woodworking, bone, stone processing, building production, glassmaking, which are well known to us from archaeological and historical data, flourished widely.

Bone cutters

Russian bone carvers were especially famous. The bone is well preserved, and therefore the finds of bone products were found in abundance during archaeological excavations. Many household items were made from bone - handles of knives and swords, piercings, needles, hooks for weaving, arrowheads, combs, buttons, spears, chess pieces, spoons, polishes and much more. Composite bone combs are an adornment of any archaeological collection. They were made of three plates - to the main one, on which cloves were cut, two side plates were attached with iron or bronze rivets. These plates were decorated with intricate ornaments in the form of wickerwork, patterns of circles, vertical and horizontal stripes. Sometimes the ends of the crest ended with stylized images of horse or animal heads. The combs were placed in ornamented bone cases, which protected them from breakage and protected them from dirt.

Most often, chess pieces were also made from bone. Chess has been known in Rus' since the 10th century. Russian epics tell about the great popularity of the wise game. At the chessboard, controversial issues are peacefully resolved, princes, governors and heroes who come from the common people compete in wisdom.

Dear guest, yes the ambassador is formidable,
Let's play checkers and chess.
And went to Prince Vladimir,
They sat down at the oak table,
They brought them a chessboard...

Chess came to Rus' from the East along the Volga trade route. Initially, they had very simple shapes in the form of hollow cylinders. Such finds are known in Belaya Vezha, on the Taman settlement, in Kyiv, in Timerev near Yaroslavl, in other cities and villages. Two chess pieces were found at the Timerevsky settlement. By themselves, they are simple - the same cylinders, but decorated with drawings. One figurine is scratched with an arrowhead, wickerwork and a crescent moon, while the other is depicted with a real sword - an exact image of a genuine sword of the 10th century. Only later did chess acquire forms close to modern, but more substantive. If the boat is a copy of a real boat with rowers and warriors. Queen, pawn - human pieces. The horse is like a real one, with precisely cut details and even with a saddle and stirrups. Especially many of these figures were found during excavations ancient city in Belarus - Volkovysk. Among them there is even a pawn-drummer - a real foot soldier, dressed in a long, floor-length shirt with a belt.

glassblowers

At the turn of the 10th and 11th centuries, glassmaking began to develop in Rus'. Craftsmen make beads, rings, bracelets, glassware and window glass from multi-colored glass. The latter was very expensive and was used only for temples and princely houses. Even very rich people sometimes could not afford to glaze the windows of their homes. At first, glassmaking was developed only in Kyiv, and then masters appeared in Novgorod, Smolensk, Polotsk and other cities of Rus'.

“Stefan wrote”, “Bratilo did” - from such autographs on products we recognize a few names of ancient Russian masters. Far beyond the borders of Rus' there was fame about the craftsmen who worked in its cities and villages. In the Arab East, in the Volga Bulgaria, Byzantium, the Czech Republic, Northern Europe, Scandinavia and many other lands, the products of Russian artisans were in great demand.

Jewelers

Archaeologists who excavated the Novotroitskoye settlement were also expecting very rare finds. Very close to the surface of the earth, at a depth of only 20 centimeters, a treasure trove of jewelry made of silver and bronze was found. From the way the treasure was hidden, it is clear that its owner did not hide the treasures in a hurry, when some danger was approaching, but calmly collected things dear to him, strung them on a bronze neck torc and buried them in the ground. So there was a silver bracelet, a temple ring made of silver, a bronze ring and small temple rings made of wire.

Another treasure was hidden just as neatly. The owner didn't come back for it either. First, archaeologists discovered a hand-molded, small, serrated clay pot. Inside a modest vessel lay real treasures: ten oriental coins, a ring, earrings, pendants for earrings, a belt tip, belt plaques, a bracelet and other expensive things - all made of pure silver! Coins were minted in various eastern cities in the 8th-9th centuries. Complementing the long list of things found during the excavations of this settlement are numerous items made of ceramics, bone, and stone.

People here lived in semi-dugouts, each of which housed an oven made of clay. The walls and roof of the dwellings were supported on special pillars.
In the dwellings of the Slavs of that time, stoves and hearths made of stones are known.
The medieval oriental writer Ibn-Roste in his work “The Book of Precious Jewels” described the Slavic dwelling as follows: “In the land of the Slavs, the cold is so strong that each of them digs out a kind of cellar in the ground, which covers it with a wooden gabled roof, which we see among Christians. churches, and upon this roof he puts earth. They move to such cellars with the whole family and, taking a few firewood and stones, they heat them red-hot on fire, when the stones are heated to the highest degree, they pour water on them, which causes steam to spread, heating the dwelling to the point that they take off their clothes. In such housing they remain until the very spring. At first, scientists believed that the author confused the dwelling with the bathhouse, but when the materials of archaeological excavations appeared, it became clear that Ibn-Roste was right and accurate in his reports.

Weaving

A very stable tradition depicts "exemplary", that is, thrifty, hardworking women and girls of Ancient Rus' (as well as other contemporary European countries), most often busy at the spinning wheel. This also applies to the "good wives" of our chronicles, and fairy-tale heroines. Indeed, in an era when literally all everyday necessities were made by hand, the first duty of a woman, in addition to cooking, was to sheathe all family members. Spinning threads, making fabrics and dyeing them - all this was done independently, at home.

Work of this kind was started in the fall, after the end of the harvest, and they tried to complete it by the spring, by the beginning of a new agricultural cycle.

They began to teach girls to do housework from the age of five or seven, the girl spun her first thread. “Non-spun”, “netkaha” - these were extremely offensive nicknames for teenage girls. And one should not think that among the ancient Slavs, hard female labor was the lot of only the wives and daughters of the common people, and girls from noble families grew up as loafers and white-handed women, like “negative” fairy-tale heroines. Not at all. In those days, princes and boyars, according to a thousand-year tradition, were elders, leaders of the people, to some extent mediators between people and Gods. This gave them certain privileges, but there were no less duties, and the well-being of the tribe directly depended on how successfully they coped with them. The wife and daughters of a boyar or a prince were not only "obliged" to be the most beautiful of all, they had to be "out of competition" behind the spinning wheel.

The spinning wheel was an inseparable companion of a woman. A little later we will see that Slavic women even managed to spin ... on the go, for example, on the road or looking after cattle. And when autumn and winter evenings young people gathered for gatherings, games and dances usually began only after the “lessons” brought from home (that is, work, needlework) had dried up, most often a tow, which should have been spun. At gatherings, boys and girls looked at each other, made acquaintances. "Nepryakha" had nothing to hope for here, even if she were the first beauty. Starting the fun without completing the "lesson" was considered unthinkable.

Linguists testify that the ancient Slavs did not call any fabric “cloth”. In all Slavic languages, this word meant only linen.

Apparently, in the eyes of our ancestors, no fabric could compare with linen, and there is nothing to be surprised at. In winter, linen fabric warms well, in summer it cools the body. Connoisseurs of traditional medicine claim that linen clothes protect human health.

They guessed about the flax harvest in advance, and the sowing itself, which usually took place in the second half of May, was accompanied by sacred rites designed to ensure good germination and good growth of flax. In particular, flax, like bread, was sown exclusively by men. Having prayed to the Gods, they went out into the field naked and carried seed grain in sacks sewn from old trousers. At the same time, the sowers tried to step wide, swaying at every step and shaking their bags: according to the ancients, tall, fibrous flax should have swayed under the wind. And of course, the first was a respected, righteous life man, to whom the Gods bestowed luck and a “light hand”: what he doesn’t touch, everything grows and blooms.

Particular attention was paid to the phases of the moon: if they wanted to grow long, fibrous flax, it was sown "for a young month", and if "full in grain" - then on the full moon.

To sort the fiber well and smooth it in one direction for the convenience of spinning, flax was carded. They did this with the help of large and small combs, sometimes special ones. After each combing, the comb removed coarse fibers, while fine, high-grade fibers - tow - remained. The word "kudel", related to the adjective "kudlaty", exists in the same meaning in many Slavic languages. The process of combing flax was also called “poking”. This word is related to the verbs "close", "open" and means in this case "separation". The finished tow could be attached to a spinning wheel - and a thread could be spun.

Hemp

Mankind met with hemp, most likely, earlier than with flax. According to experts, one of the indirect evidence of this is the willing consumption of hemp oil. In addition, some peoples, to whom the culture of fibrous plants came through the medium of the Slavs, first borrowed hemp from them, and flax - later.

The term for cannabis is quite rightly called "wandering, oriental" by language experts. This is probably directly related to the fact that the history of human use of cannabis goes back to primitive times, in an era when there was no agriculture ...

Wild hemp is found both in the Volga region and in Ukraine. From ancient times, the Slavs paid attention to this plant, which, like flax, gives both oil and fiber. In any case, in the city of Ladoga, where our ancestors of the Slavs lived among the ethnically diverse population, in the layer of the 8th century, archaeologists discovered hemp seeds and hemp ropes, which, according to ancient authors, Rus' was famous for. In general, scientists believe that hemp was originally used specifically for twisting ropes and only later began to be used for making fabrics.

Hemp fabrics were called by our ancestors “zamashny” or “leather” - both by the name of male cannabis plants. It was in bags sewn from old "zamushny" pants that they tried to put hemp seed during spring sowing.

Hemp, unlike flax, was harvested in two steps. Immediately after flowering, male plants were chosen, and female plants were left until the end of August in the field - to "wear" oily seeds. According to somewhat later information, hemp in Rus' was grown not only for fiber, but also specifically for oil. They threshed and soaked (more often soaked) hemp in almost the same way as flax, but they didn’t crush it with a pulp, but pounded it in a mortar with a pestle.

Nettle

In the Stone Age, fishing nets were woven from hemp along the shores of Lake Ladoga, and these nets were found by archaeologists. Some peoples of Kamchatka and the Far East still support this tradition, but not so long ago the Khanty made not only nets, but even clothes from nettles.

According to experts, nettle is a very good fibrous plant, and it is found everywhere near human habitation, which each of us has repeatedly seen, in the full sense of the word, in our own skin. “zhiguchka”, “zhigalka”, “strekavoy”, “fire-nettle” called her in Rus'. The word "nettle" itself is considered by scientists to be related to the verb "to sprinkle" and the noun "crop" - "boiling water": whoever burned with nettles at least once, no explanation is required. Another branch of related words indicates that nettles were considered fit for spinning.

Bast and matting

Initially, ropes were made from bast, as well as from hemp. Bast ropes are mentioned in Scandinavian mythology. But, according to ancient authors, even before our era, coarse fabric was also made from bast: Roman historians mention the Germans, who put on “bast cloaks” in bad weather.

Fabric made from cattail fibers, and later from bast - matting - was used by the ancient Slavs mainly for household purposes. Clothing made from such fabric in that historical era was not just “non-prestigious” - it was, frankly, “socially unacceptable”, meaning the last degree of poverty to which a person could sink. Even in difficult times, such poverty was considered shameful. As for the ancient Slavs, a man dressed in a mat was either surprisingly offended by fate (in order to become so impoverished, it was necessary to lose all relatives and friends at once), or he was expelled by his family, or he was a hopeless parasite who doesn’t care, if only don't work. In a word, a person who has a head on his shoulders and hands, able to work and at the same time dressed in a mat, did not arouse sympathy among our ancestors.

The only allowed type of matting clothing was a raincoat; perhaps such cloaks were seen by the Romans among the Germans. There is no reason to doubt that our ancestors, the Slavs, who were just as accustomed to bad weather, also used them.

For thousands of years, matting served faithfully, and new materials appeared - and in one historical moment we forgot what it is.

Wool

Many reputable scientists believe that woolen fabrics appeared much earlier than linen or linen: humanity, they write, first learned to process skins obtained by hunting, then tree bark, and only later became acquainted with fibrous plants. So the very first thread in the world, most likely, was woolen. In addition, the magical meaning of fur completely extended to wool.

Wool in the ancient Slavic economy was mainly sheep. Our ancestors sheared sheep with spring shears, not very different from modern ones, designed for the same purpose. They were forged from one strip of metal, the handle was bent in an arc. Slavic blacksmiths were able to make self-sharpening blades that did not dull during work. Historians write that before the advent of scissors, wool was apparently collected during molting, combed out with combs, cut off with sharp knives, or ... animals were shaved, since razors were known and used.

To clean the wool from debris, before spinning it was “beaten” with special devices on wooden grates, disassembled by hand or combed with iron and wooden combs.

In addition to the most common sheep, they used goat, cow and dog hair. Cow wool, according to somewhat later materials, was used, in particular, for the manufacture of belts and blankets. But dog hair from ancient times to this day is considered healing, and, apparently, not in vain. "Hooves" made of dog hair were worn by people suffering from rheumatism. And if you believe the popular rumor, with its help it was possible to get rid of not only ailments. If you weave a ribbon from dog hair and tie it on your arm, leg or neck, it was believed that the most ferocious dog would not pounce ...

Spinning wheels and spindles

Before the prepared fiber turned into a real thread, suitable for inserting it into the eye of a needle or threading it into a loom, it was necessary to: pull a long strand out of the tow; twist it stronger so that it does not spread with the slightest effort; wind up.

The easiest way to twist an elongated strand is to roll it between your palms or on your knee. The thread obtained in this way was called by our great-grandmothers "verch" or "suchanina" (from the word "twist", that is, "twist"); it was used for woven bedding and rugs, which did not require special strength.

It is the spindle, and not the familiar and well-known spinning wheel, that is the main tool in such spinning. The spindles were made of dry wood (preferably birch) - possibly on a lathe, well known in ancient Rus'. The length of the spindle could vary from 20 to 80 cm. One or both ends of it were pointed, the spindle has this shape and is “bare”, without a wound thread. At the upper end, a "beard" was sometimes arranged for tying a loop. In addition, the spindles are "grassroots" and "top", depending on which end of the wooden rod was put on the whorl - a clay or stone drilled weight. This detail was extremely important for the technological process and, in addition, was well preserved in the ground.

There is reason to believe that women valued whorls very much: they carefully marked them so as not to inadvertently “swap” at gatherings when games, dances and fuss began.

The word "whorl", rooted in the scientific literature, is, generally speaking, incorrect. "Spun" - that's how the ancient Slavs pronounced, and in this form this term still lives where hand spinning has been preserved. "Spinning wheel" was called and is called a spinning wheel.

It is curious that the fingers of the left hand (thumb and forefinger), pulling the yarn, as well as the fingers of the right hand, busy with the spindle, had to be moistened with saliva all the time. In order not to dry up in the mouth - and after all, they often sang while spinning - the Slavic spinner put sour berries next to her in a bowl: cranberries, lingonberries, mountain ash, viburnum ...

Both in Ancient Rus' and in Scandinavia during the Viking times, portable spinning wheels were used: a tow was tied to one end of it (if it was flat, with a spatula), or put on it (if it was sharp), or strengthened in some other way (for example, in flier). The other end was inserted into the belt - and the woman, holding the whorl with her elbow, worked standing up or even on the move, when she walked into the field, drove the cow, the lower end of the spinning wheel was stuck into the hole of the bench or a special board - “bottom” ...

Krosna

The terms of weaving, and, in particular, the names of the details of looms, sound the same in different Slavic languages: according to linguists, this indicates that our distant ancestors were by no means “non-weaving” and, not content with imported ones, they themselves made beautiful fabrics. Quite weighty clay and stone weights with holes were found, inside of which thread wear is clearly visible. Scientists came to the conclusion that these were weights that gave tension to the warp threads on the so-called vertical looms.

Such a camp is a U-shaped frame (krosna) - two vertical beams connected at the top by a crossbar that can rotate. The warp threads are attached to this crossbar, and then the finished fabric is wound around it - therefore, in modern terminology, it is called the “commodity shaft”. The cross was placed obliquely, so that the part of the warp that appeared behind the thread-separating bar hung down, forming a natural shed.

In other varieties of the vertical mill, the cross was placed not obliquely, but straight, and instead of a thread, strings were used like those with which weaved braid. The birches were hung from the upper crossbar on four strings and moved back and forth, changing the throat. And in all cases, the spent ducks were “nailed” to the already woven fabric with a special wooden spatula or comb.

The next important step in technological progress was the horizontal loom. Its important advantage lies in the fact that the weaver works while sitting, moving the heddle threads with his feet, standing on the steps.

Trade

The Slavs have long been famous as skilled merchants. This was largely facilitated by the position of the Slavic lands on the way from the Varangians to the Greeks. The importance of trade is evidenced by the numerous finds of trade scales, weights and silver Arab coins - dihrems. The main goods coming from the Slavic lands were: furs, honey, wax and grain. The most active trade was with Arab merchants along the Volga, with the Greeks along the Dnieper and the countries of Northern and Western Europe on the Baltic Sea. Arab merchants brought to Rus' a large amount of silver, which served as the main monetary unit in Rus'. The Greeks supplied the Slavs with wines and textiles. From the countries of Western Europe came long double-edged swords, swords were a favorite weapon. The main trade routes were rivers, from one river basin boats were dragged to another on special roads - portages. It was there that large trading settlements arose. The most important trade centers were Novgorod (which controlled northern trade) and Kyiv (which controlled the young direction).

Armament of the Slavs

Modern scientists subdivide the swords of the 9th - 11th centuries, found on the territory of Ancient Rus', into almost two dozen types and subtypes. However, the differences between them come down mainly to variations in the size and shape of the handle, and the blades are almost the same type. The average length of the blade was about 95 cm. Only one heroic sword 126 cm long is known, but this is an exception. He was indeed found along with the remains of a man who possessed the article of a hero.
The width of the blade at the handle reached 7 cm, towards the end it gradually tapered. In the middle of the blade was a "dol" - a wide longitudinal recess. It served to somewhat lighten the sword, which weighed about 1.5 kg. The thickness of the sword in the area of ​​the valley was about 2.5 mm, on the sides of the valley - up to 6 mm. The dressing of the sword was such that it did not affect the strength. The tip of the sword was rounded. In the 9th - 11th centuries, the sword was a purely chopping weapon and was not intended for stabbing. Speaking of cold steel made of high-quality steel, the words "damask steel" and "Damascus steel" immediately come to mind.

Everyone has heard the word "damask steel", but not everyone knows what it is. In general, steel is an alloy of iron with other elements, mainly carbon. Damask steel is a grade of steel that has long been famous for its amazing properties that are difficult to combine in one substance. the damask blade was capable of cutting iron and even steel without dulling: this implies high hardness. At the same time, it did not break, even when bent into a ring. The contradictory properties of damask steel are explained by the high carbon content and, in particular, its inhomogeneous distribution in the metal. This was achieved by slowly cooling molten iron with the mineral graphite, a natural source of pure carbon. Blade. forged from the resulting metal was subjected to etching and a characteristic pattern appeared on its surface - wavy whimsical light stripes on a dark background. The background turned out dark gray, golden - or reddish-brown and black. It is to this dark background that we owe the Old Russian synonym for damask steel - the word "kharalug". In order to obtain metal with an uneven carbon content, Slavic blacksmiths took strips of iron, twisted them together through one and then forged many times, folded several times again, twisted, "assembled like an accordion", cut along, forged again, etc. Strips of beautiful and very strong patterned steel were obtained, which were etched to reveal the characteristic herringbone pattern. This steel made it possible to make swords thin enough, without loss of strength. It was thanks to her that the blades straightened, being doubled.

Prayers, incantations and spells were an integral part of the technological process. The work of a blacksmith could be compared to a kind of sacred ceremony. Therefore, the sword does not function as a powerful amulet.

A good damask sword was bought for an equal amount of gold by weight. Not every warrior had a sword - it was a professional weapon. But not every sword owner could boast of a real Kharaluzh sword. Most had simpler swords.

The hilts of ancient swords were richly and variously decorated. Masters skillfully and with great taste combined noble and non-ferrous metals - bronze, copper, brass, gold and silver - with a relief pattern, enamel, niello. Our ancestors especially loved the floral pattern. Precious jewelry was a kind of gift to the sword for faithful service, signs of love and gratitude to the owner.

They carried swords in scabbards made of leather and wood. The sheath with the sword was located not only at the waist, but also behind the back, so that the handles stuck out behind the right shoulder. The shoulder harness was willingly used by riders.

A mysterious connection arose between the sword and its owner. It was impossible to say unequivocally who owned whom: a warrior with a sword, or a sword with a warrior. The sword was addressed by name. Some swords were considered a gift from the gods. Belief in their sacred power was felt in the legends about the origin of many famous blades. Having chosen a master for himself, the sword faithfully served him until his death. According to the legends, the swords of the ancient heroes jumped out of their scabbards and fervently rang, anticipating the battle.

In many military burials next to a man lies his sword. Often such a sword was also "killed" - they tried to break it, bend it in half.

Our ancestors swore by their swords: it was assumed that a just sword would not listen to the perjurer, or even punish him. The swords were trusted to administer "God's judgment" - a judicial duel, which sometimes ended the trial. Before that, the sword was placed at the statue of Perun and conjured in the name of the formidable God - "Do not let untruth be committed!"

Those who carried the sword had a completely different law of life and death, other relationships with the Gods than other people. These warriors stood at the highest rung of the military hierarchy. The sword is a companion of true warriors, filled with courage and military honor.

Saber Knife Dagger

The saber first appeared in the 7th-8th centuries in the Eurasian steppes, in the zone of influence of nomadic tribes. From here, this type of weapon began to spread among the peoples who had to deal with nomads. Starting from the 10th century, she pressed the sword a little and became especially popular among the warriors of Southern Rus', who often had to deal with nomads. After all, according to its purpose, the saber is a weapon of maneuverable conng combat. . Due to the bend of the blade and the slight inclination of the handle, the saber in battle not only cuts, but also cuts, it is also suitable for stabbing.

The saber of the 10th - 13th centuries is curved slightly and evenly. They were made in much the same way as swords: there were blades made of the best grades of steel, there were also simpler ones. In the shape of the blade, they resemble checkers of the 1881 model, but are longer and suitable not only for horsemen, but also for footmen. In the 10th - 11th centuries, the length of the blade was about 1 m with a width of 3 - 3.7 cm, in the 12th century it lengthened by 10 - 17 cm and reached a width of 4.5 cm. The bend also increased.

They carried a saber in a scabbard, both at the belt and behind the back, as it was more convenient for anyone.

The Sdavians contributed to the penetration of the saber into Western Europe. According to experts, it was the Slavic and Hungarian craftsmen who made the so-called saber of Charlemagne at the end of the 10th century - the beginning of the 11th century, which later became the ceremonial symbol of the Holy Roman Empire.

Another type of weapon that came to Rus' from the outside is a large combat knife - "scramasax". The length of this knife reached 0.5 m, and the width was 2-3 cm. Judging by the surviving images, they were worn in a sheath near the belt, which were located horizontally. They were used only in heroic martial arts, when finishing off a defeated enemy, as well as during especially stubborn and cruel battles.

Another type of edged weapon, which was not widely used in pre-Mongolian Rus', is a dagger. For that era, they were found even less than the Scramasaxes. Scientists write that the dagger entered the equipment of a European knight, including a Russian one, only in the 13th century, in the era of strengthening protective armor. The dagger served to defeat the enemy, dressed in armor, during close hand-to-hand combat. Russian daggers of the 13th century are similar to Western European ones and have the same elongated triangular blade.

A spear

Judging by the archaeological data, the most widespread types of weapons were those that could be used not only in battle, but also in peaceful everyday life: hunting (bow, spear) or household (knife, ax) Military clashes occurred often, but the main occupation of the people they never were.

Spearheads very often come across to archaeologists both in burials and on the sites of ancient battles, second only to arrowheads in terms of the number of finds. The spearheads of pre-Mongol Rus were divided into seven types, and for each type, changes were traced over the course of centuries, from IX to XIII.
The spear served as a stabbing hand-to-hand weapon. Scientists write that the spear of a foot warrior of the 9th-10th centuries with a total length somewhat exceeded human height of 1.8 - 2.2 m. A socketed tip up to half a meter long and weighing 200 - 400g. It was fastened to the shaft with a rivet or a nail. The shapes of the tips were different, but, according to archaeologists, elongated triangular ones prevailed. The thickness of the tip reached 1 cm, the width - up to 5 cm. Tips were made in different ways: all-steel, there were also those where a strong steel strip was placed between two iron ones and went out to both edges. Such blades were self-sharpening.

Archaeologists also come across tips of a special kind. Their weight reaches 1 kg, the width of the feather is up to 6 cm, the thickness is up to 1.5 cm. The length of the blade is 30 cm. The inner diameter of the sleeve reaches 5 cm. These tips are shaped like a laurel leaf. In the hands of a mighty warrior, such a spear could pierce any armor; in the hands of a hunter, it could stop a bear or a wild boar. Such a weapon was called a "spear". Rogatin is an exclusively Russian invention.

The spears used by horsemen in Rus' were 3.6 cm long and had tips in the form of a narrow tetrahedral rod.
For throwing, our ancestors used special darts - "sulits". Their name comes from the word "promise" or "throw". The sulica was a cross between a spear and an arrow. The length of its shaft reached 1.2 - 1.5 m. They were attached to the side of the shaft, entering the tree only with a curved lower end. This is a typical disposable weapon that must have often been lost in combat. Sulits were used both in battle and in hunting.

battle ax

This type of weapon, one might say, was unlucky. Epics and heroic songs do not mention axes as the “glorious” weapons of the heroes; in chronicle miniatures, only foot militias are armed with them.

Scientists explain the rarity of its mention in chronicles and its absence in epics by the fact that the ax was not very convenient for the rider. Meanwhile, the early Middle Ages in Rus' passed under the sign of the cavalry coming to the fore as the most important military force. In the south, in the steppe and forest-steppe expanses, the cavalry early acquired decisive importance. In the north, in the conditions of rugged wooded terrain, it was more difficult for her to turn around. Foot combat prevailed here for a long time. The Vikings also fought on foot - even if they came to the battlefield on horseback.

Battle axes, being similar in shape to the workers who lived in the same places, not only did not exceed their size and weight, but, on the contrary, were smaller and lighter. Archaeologists often write not even “battle axes”, but “battle axes”. Old Russian monuments also mention not “huge axes”, but “light axes”. A heavy ax that must be carried with two hands is a woodcutter's tool, not a warrior's weapon. He really has a terrible blow, but his severity, and therefore slowness, gives the enemy a good chance to dodge and get the ax-bearer with some more maneuverable and light weapon. And besides, the ax must be carried on oneself during the campaign and “tirelessly” wave it in battle!

Experts believe that Slavic warriors were familiar with battle axes of various types. There are among them those who came to us from the west, there are those from the east. In particular, the East gave Rus' the so-called coinage - a battle hatchet with a butt extended in the form of a long hammer. Such a butt device provided a kind of counterweight to the blade and made it possible to strike with excellent accuracy. Scandinavian archaeologists write that the Vikings, when they came to Rus', it was here that they got acquainted with the coinage and partly took them into service. Nevertheless, in the 19th century, when decisively all Slavic weapons were declared to be either Scandinavian or Tatar in origin, the coinage was recognized as a "Viking weapon".

A much more characteristic type of weapon for the Vikings were axes - wide-bladed axes. The length of the blade of the ax was 17-18 cm, the width was also 17-18 cm, Weight 200 - 400g. They were also used by the Russians.

Another type of battle axes - with a characteristic straight upper edge and a blade drawn down - is more common in the north of Rus' and is called "Russian-Finnish".

Developed in Rus' and its own kind of battle axes. The design of such axes is surprisingly rational and perfect. Their blade is somewhat curved downwards, which not only chopping, but also cutting properties were achieved. The shape of the blade is such that the efficiency of the ax was close to 1 - all the impact force was concentrated in the middle part of the blade, so that the blow was truly crushing. Small processes - "cheeks" were placed on the sides of the butt, the back part was lengthened with special capes. They protected the handle. Such an ax could deliver a powerful vertical blow. Axes of this type were both working and fighting. Since the 10th century, they have spread widely in Rus', becoming the most massive.

The ax was a universal companion of a warrior and faithfully served him not only in battle, but also at a halt, as well as when clearing a road for troops in a dense forest.

Mace, club, cudgel

When they say “mace”, they most often imagine that monstrous pear-shaped and, apparently, all-metal weapon that artists love to hang on the wrist or on the saddle of our hero Ilya Muromets. Probably, it should emphasize the heavy power of the epic character, who, neglecting the sophisticated "lord's" weapons like a sword, crushes the enemy with one physical force. It is also possible that this played a role fairy-tale heroes who, if they already order a mace from a blacksmith, then certainly a “hundred-pound” one ...
Meanwhile, in life, as usual, everything was much more modest and efficient. The Old Russian mace was an iron or bronze (sometimes filled with lead from the inside) pommel weighing 200-300 g, mounted on a handle 50-60 cm long and 2-6 cm thick.

The handle in some cases was sheathed for strength with a copper sheet. As scientists write, the mace was used mainly by mounted warriors, it was an auxiliary weapon and served to deliver a quick, unexpected blow in any direction. The mace seems to be a less formidable and deadly weapon than a sword or spear. However, let's listen to historians who point out that not every battle of the early Middle Ages turned into a fight "to the last drop of blood." Quite often, the chronicler ends the battle scene with the words: "... and on that they parted, and there were many wounded, but few killed." Each side, as a rule, did not want to exterminate the enemy without exception, but only to break his organized resistance, to force him to retreat, and those who fled were not always pursued. In such a battle, it was not at all necessary to bring a “hundred-pound” mace and drive the enemy into the ground up to his ears. It was quite enough to “stun” him - to stun him with a blow to the helmet. And the maces of our ancestors coped with this task perfectly.

Judging by the archaeological finds, maces entered Rus' from the nomadic South-East at the beginning of the 11th century. Among the oldest finds, tops in the form of a cube with four pyramidal spikes arranged crosswise predominate. With some simplification, this form gave a cheap mass weapon that spread in the XII-XIII centuries among peasants and ordinary citizens: maces were made in the form of cubes with cut corners, while the intersections of the planes gave a semblance of spikes. On some tops of this type there is a protrusion on the side - a "caller". Such maces served to crush heavy armor. In the 12th-13th centuries, pommels of a very complex shape appeared - with spikes sticking out in all directions. Jacob, that there was always at least one spike on the line of impact. Such maces were made mainly of bronze. Initially, the part was cast from wax, then an experienced craftsman gave the pliable material the desired shape. Bronze was poured into the finished wax model. For the mass production of maces, clay molds were used, which were made from a finished pommel.

In addition to iron and bronze, in Rus' they also made heads for maces from "kapk" - a very dense growth that is found on birch trees.

Maces were mass weapons. However, a gilded mace made by a skilled craftsman sometimes became a symbol of power. Such maces were trimmed with gold, silver, and precious stones.

The very name "mace" is found in written documents starting from the 17th century. And before that, such a weapon was called a "hand wand" or "cue". This word also had the meaning of "hammer", "heavy stick", "club".

Before our ancestors learned how to make metal pommel, they used wooden clubs, clubs. They were worn at the waist. In battle, they tried to hit the enemy on the helmet with them. Sometimes clubs were thrown. Another name for the club was "horn", or "horn".

Flail

A flail is a rather weighty (200-300 g) bone or metal weight attached to a belt, chain or rope, the other end of which was fixed on a short wooden handle - “flail” - or simply on the hand. Otherwise, the flail is called the "combat weight".

If the reputation of a privileged, “noble” weapon with special sacred properties has been attached to the sword from the deepest antiquity, then the flail, according to established tradition, is perceived by us as a weapon of the common people and even purely robbery. Dictionary of the Russian language S.I. Ozhegova gives a single phrase as an example of the use of this word: “Robber with a flail”. The dictionary of V. I. Dal interprets it more broadly as a “hand-held road weapon”. Indeed, small in size, but effective in business, the flail was imperceptibly placed in the bosom, and sometimes in the sleeve, and could do good service to the person who was attacked on the road. The dictionary of V. I. Dahl gives some idea of ​​the methods of handling this weapon: “... a flying brush ... is wound, circling, on a brush and develops in a big way; they fought in two flails, in both streams, dissolving them, circling them, hitting and picking them up in turn; there was no hand-to-hand attack against such a fighter ... "
“A brush with a fist, and good with it,” the proverb said. Another proverb aptly characterizes a person who hides a robber's burrow behind external piety: ""Have mercy, Lord!" - and a flail behind the belt!

Meanwhile, in ancient Rus', the flail was primarily a weapon of a warrior. At the beginning of the 20th century, it was believed that the flails were brought to Europe by the Mongols. But then the flails were dug up along with Russian things of the 10th century, and in the lower reaches of the Volga and Don, where nomadic tribes lived, who used them as early as the 4th century. Scientists write: this weapon, like maces, is extremely convenient for the rider. That, however, did not prevent the foot soldiers from appreciating it.
The word "brush" does not come from the word "brush", which at first glance seems obvious. Etymologists deduce it from the Turkic languages, in which similar words have the meaning of "stick", "club".
By the second half of the 10th century, flail was used throughout Rus', from Kyiv to Novgorod. Tassels of those times were usually made from elk horn - the densest and heaviest bone available to the artisan. They were pear-shaped, with a drilled longitudinal hole. A metal rod was passed into it, equipped with an eyelet for a belt. On the other hand, the rod was riveted. On some flails, carvings, signs of princely property, images of people and mythological creatures are distinguishable.

Bone flails existed in Rus' as early as the 13th century. Bone was gradually replaced by bronze and iron. In the 10th century, they began to make flails filled with heavy lead from the inside. Sometimes a stone was placed inside. Tassels were decorated with a relief pattern, notch, blackening. The peak of the flail's popularity in pre-Mongolian Rus' came in the 13th century. At the same time, he gets to neighboring peoples - from the Baltic states to Bulgaria.

Bow and arrows

The bows that were in use among the Slavs, as well as among the Arabs, Persians, Turks, Tatars and other peoples of the East, far surpassed Western European ones - Scandinavian, English, German and others - both in terms of their technical perfection and combat effectiveness.
In Ancient Rus', for example, there was a kind of measure of length - "shooting" or "shooting", about 225 m.

compound bow

By the 8th - 9th centuries AD, a complex bow was used everywhere throughout the European part modern Russia. The art of archery required training from an early age. Small, up to 1 m long, children's bows made of elastic juniper were found by scientists during excavations of Staraya Ladoga, Novgorod, Staraya Russa and other cities.

Compound bow device

The shoulder of the bow consisted of two wooden planks glued together longitudinally. On the inside of the bow (facing the shooter) was a juniper bar. It was unusually smoothly planed, and where it was adjacent to the outer plank (birch), the ancient master made three narrow longitudinal grooves for filling with glue to make the connection more durable.
The birch plank that made up the back of the bow (the outer half in relation to the shooter) was somewhat rougher than the juniper. Some researchers considered this to be the negligence of the ancient master. But others drew attention to a narrow (about 3-5 cm) strip of birch bark, which completely, spirally, wrapped around the bow from one end to the other. On the inner, juniper plank, the birch bark still held exceptionally firmly, while for unknown reasons it “peeled off” from the birch back. What's the matter?
Finally, we noticed an imprint of some longitudinal fibers left in the adhesive layer both on the birch bark braid and on the back itself. Then they noticed that the shoulder of the bow had a characteristic bend - outward, forward, towards the back. The end was especially strongly bent.
All this suggested to scientists that the ancient bow was also reinforced with tendons (deer, elk, bull).

It was these tendons that arched the shoulders of the bow in the opposite direction when the bowstring was removed.
Russian bows began to be reinforced with horn stripes - “valances”. From the 15th century, steel valances appeared, sometimes mentioned in epics.
The handle of the Novgorod bow was lined with smooth bone plates. The length of the coverage of this handle was about 13 cm, just about the hand of an adult man. In the context of the handle had an oval shape and very comfortable fit in the palm of your hand.
The arms of the bow were most often of equal length. However, experts point out that the most experienced shooters preferred such proportions of the bow, in which the middle point was not in the middle of the handle, but at its upper end - the place where the arrow passes. Thus, complete symmetry of the effort during firing was ensured.
Bone overlays were also attached to the ends of the bow, where the loop of the bowstring was put on. In general, they tried to strengthen those places of the bow (they were called "knots") with bone overlays, where the joints of its main parts - the hilt, shoulders (otherwise horns) and ends - fell. After gluing the bone linings onto the wooden base, their ends were again wound with tendon threads soaked in glue.
The wooden base of the bow in Ancient Rus' was called "kibit".
The Russian word "bow" comes from the roots that meant "to bend" and "arc". He is related to such words as “out of the BEAM”, “LUKOMORYE”, “Slyness”, “LUKA” (a part of the saddle) and others, also associated with the ability to bend.
Onions, which consisted of natural organic materials, reacted strongly to changes in air humidity, to heat and frost. Everywhere, quite definite proportions were assumed with a combination of wood, glue and tendons. This knowledge was also fully owned by the ancient Russian masters.

Many bows were required; in principle, each person had the necessary skills to make a good weapon for himself, but it is better if the bow was made by an experienced craftsman. Such masters were called "archers". The word "archer" has established itself in our literature as the designation of the shooter, but this is not true: he was called the "archer".

bowstring

So, the ancient Russian bow was not “just” a stick that was somehow cut off and bent. In the same way, the bowstring that connected its ends was not “just” a rope. To the materials from which it was made, the quality of workmanship was subject to no less requirements than to the bow itself.
The bowstring was not supposed to change its properties under the influence of natural conditions: stretch (for example, from dampness), swell, twist, dry out in the heat. All this spoiled the bow and could make shooting ineffective, if not impossible.
Scientists have proven that our ancestors used bowstrings from different materials, choosing those that the best way suitable for this climate - and medieval Arabic sources tell us about the silk and vein bowstrings of the Slavs. The Slavs also used bowstrings from the "intestinal string" - specially treated animal intestines. String bowstrings were good for warm and dry weather, but they were afraid of dampness: when wet, they stretched out a lot.
Rawhide strings were also in use. Such a bowstring, if properly made, was suitable for any climate and was not afraid of any bad weather.
As you know, the bowstring was not put on tightly on the bow: during breaks in use, it was removed so as not to keep the bow taut and weaken it in vain. Tied, too, not anyhow. There were special knots, because the ends of the strap had to be intertwined in the ears of the bowstring so that the tension of the bow tightly clamped them, preventing them from slipping. On the preserved bowstrings of ancient Russian bows, scientists found knots that were considered the best in the Arab East.

In ancient Rus', the case for arrows was called "tul". The meaning of this word is "receptacle", "shelter". In the modern language, such of its relatives as "tula", "torso" and "tuli" have been preserved.
The ancient Slavic tul most often had a shape close to cylindrical. Its frame was rolled up from one or two layers of dense birch bark and often, although not always, covered with leather. The bottom was made of wood, about a centimeter thick. It was glued or nailed to the base. The length of the body was 60-70 cm: the arrows were laid with the tips down, and with a longer length, the plumage would be sure to wrinkle. To protect the feathers from bad weather and damage, the bodies were supplied with tight covers.
The very shape of the body was dictated by the concern for the safety of the arrows. Near the bottom, it expanded to 12-15 cm in diameter, in the middle of the body its diameter was 8-10 cm, at the neck the body again expanded somewhat. In such a case, the arrows were held tightly, at the same time their plumage was not crushed, and the arrowheads did not cling when pulled out. Inside the body, from the bottom to the neck, there was a wooden plank: a bone loop was attached to it with straps for hanging. If iron rings were taken instead of a bone loop, they were riveted. The tul could be decorated with metal plaques or carved bone inlays. They were riveted, glued or sewn, usually in the upper part of the body.
Slavic warriors, on foot and on horseback, always wore a tulle on the right at the waist, on a waist belt or a cross over shoulder. And so that the neck of the body with arrows sticking out of it looked forward. The warrior had to draw the arrow as fast as he could, because in battle his life depended on it. And besides, he had with him arrows of various types and purposes. Different arrows were required in order to hit the enemy without armor and dressed in chain mail, in order to knock down a horse under him or cut the bowstring of his bow.

Naluchye

Judging by later samples, the bows were flat, on a wooden base; they were covered with leather or dense beautiful fabric. The bow did not need to be as strong as the body, which protected the shafts and delicate plumage of arrows. The bow and bowstring are very durable: in addition to ease of transportation, the bow only protected them from dampness, heat and frost.
Naluchie, like the tulle, was equipped with a bone or metal loop for hanging. It was located near the center of gravity of the bow - at its handle. They wore a bow in the armband upside down, on the left on the belt, also on the waist belt or cross over the shoulder.

Arrow: shaft, plumage, eye

Sometimes our ancestors made arrows for their bows themselves, sometimes they turned to specialists.
The arrows of our ancestors were well matched with powerful, lovingly made bows. Centuries of manufacture and use have made it possible to develop a whole science of the selection and proportions of the components of the arrow: shaft, tip, plumage and eye.
The arrow shaft had to be perfectly straight, strong and not too heavy. Our ancestors took straight-layered wood for arrows: birch, spruce and pine. Another requirement was that after processing the wood, its surface would acquire exceptional smoothness, because the slightest “burr” on the shaft, sliding along the shooter’s hand at high speed, could cause serious injury.
They tried to harvest wood for arrows in the fall, when there was less moisture in it. At the same time, preference was given to old trees: their wood is denser, harder and stronger. The length of ancient Russian arrows was usually 75-90 cm, they weighed about 50 g. The tip was fixed at the butt end of the shaft, which was facing the root of a living tree. The plumage was located on what was closer to the top. This is due to the fact that the wood to the butt is stronger.
The plumage ensures the stability and accuracy of the arrow flight. There were from two to six feathers on arrows. Most ancient Russian arrows had two or three feathers, symmetrically located on the circumference of the shaft. Feathers were suitable, of course, not all. They had to be even, resilient, straight and not too hard. In Rus' and in the East, the feathers of an eagle, vulture, falcon and sea birds were considered the best.
The heavier the arrow, the longer and wider its plumage became. Scientists know arrows with plumage 2 cm wide and 28 cm long. However, among the ancient Slavs, arrows with feathers 12-15 cm long and 1 cm wide prevailed.
The eye of the arrow, where the bowstring was inserted, also had a well-defined size and shape. Too deep would slow down the flight of the arrow, if too shallow, the arrow did not sit firmly on the bowstring. The rich experience of our ancestors made it possible to derive the optimal dimensions: depth - 5-8 mm, rarely 12, width - 4-6 mm.
Sometimes the cutout for the bowstring was machined directly into the shaft of the arrow, but usually the eyelet was an independent detail, usually made of bone.

Arrow: tip

The widest variety of arrowheads is explained, of course, not by the "violence of imagination" of our ancestors, but by purely practical needs. On hunting or in battle, a variety of situations arose, so that each case had to correspond to a certain type of arrow.
In ancient Russian images of archers, you can more often see ... sort of “flyers”. Scientifically, such tips are called "shear in the form of wide figured slotted spatulas." "Cut" - from the word "cut"; this term covers a large group of tips of various shapes, having a common feature: a wide cutting blade facing forward. They were used to shoot at an unprotected enemy, at his horse or at a large animal during a hunt. The arrows hit with terrifying force, so that the broad arrowheads inflicted significant wounds, causing severe bleeding that could quickly weaken a beast or enemy.
In the 8th - 9th centuries, when armor and chain mail became widespread, narrow, faceted armor-piercing tips became especially "popular". Their name speaks for itself: they were designed to penetrate enemy armor, in which a wide cut could get stuck without causing enough damage to the enemy. They were made from high quality steel; on ordinary tips, iron was far from the highest grade.
There was also a direct opposite of armor-piercing tips - frankly blunt tips (iron and bone). Scientists even call them "thimble", which is consistent with their appearance. In Ancient Rus' they were called "tomars" - "arrow tomars". They also had their own important purpose: they were used to hunt forest birds and, in particular, fur-bearing animals climbing trees.
Returning to the one hundred and six types of arrowheads, we note that scientists divide them into two groups according to the way they are attached to the shaft. The "sleeved" ones are equipped with a small socket-tulka, which was put on the shaft, and the "stalked", on the contrary, with a rod that was inserted into a hole specially made at the end of the shaft. The tip of the shaft at the tip was strengthened with a winding and a thin film of birch bark was pasted over it so that the transversely located threads did not slow down the arrow.
According to Byzantine scientists, the Slavs dipped some of their arrows in poison...

Crossbow

Crossbow - crossbow - a small, very tight bow, mounted on a wooden bed with a butt and a groove for an arrow - a "self-shooting bolt". It was very difficult to pull the bowstring for a shot by hand, so it was equipped with a special device - a collar ("self-shooting brace" - and a trigger mechanism. In Russia, the crossbow was not widely used, since it could not compete with a powerful and complex bow either in terms of shooting efficiency or in Russia, they were more often used not by professional warriors, but by civilians.The superiority of Slavic bows over crossbows was noted by Western chroniclers of the Middle Ages.

chain mail

In the deepest antiquity, mankind did not know protective armor: the first warriors went into battle naked.

Chain mail first appeared in Assyria or Iran, was well known to the Romans and their neighbors. After the fall of Rome, comfortable chain mail became widespread in "barbarian" Europe. Chainmail acquired magical properties. The chain mail inherited all the magical properties of the metal that had been under the blacksmith's hammer. Weaving chain mail from thousands of rings is an extremely laborious business, which means "sacred". The rings themselves served as amulets - they scared away evil spirits with their noise and ringing. Thus, the "iron shirt" served not only for individual protection, but was also a symbol of "military holiness". Our ancestors began to widely use protective armor already in the 8th century. Slavic masters worked in European traditions. Chain mail made by them was sold in Khorezm and in the West, which indicates their high quality.

The very word "chain mail" was first mentioned in written sources only in the 16th century. Previously, it was called "ringed armor".

Master blacksmiths made chain mail from at least 20,000 rings, with a diameter of 6 to 12 mm, with a wire thickness of 0.8-2 mm. For the manufacture of chain mail, 600m of wire was required. Rings were usually of the same diameter, later they began to combine rings of different sizes. Some rings were welded tightly. Every 4 such rings were connected by one open one, which was then riveted. Masters traveled with each army, capable of repairing chain mail if necessary.

Old Russian chain mail differed from Western European, which already in the 10th century was knee-length and weighed up to 10 kg. Our chain mail was about 70 cm long, had a width in the belt of about 50 cm, the sleeve length was 25 cm - to the elbow. The collar cut was in the middle of the neck or was shifted to the side; chain mail was fastened without a “smell”, the collar reached 10 cm. The weight of such armor was an average of 7 kg. Archaeologists have found chain mail made for people of different builds. Some of them are shorter in the back than in the front, obviously for the convenience of landing in the saddle.
Just before the Mongol invasion, chain mail made of flattened links (“baidans”) and chain mail stockings (“nagavits”) appeared.
In campaigns, the armor was always taken off and dressed in them immediately before the battle, sometimes in the mind of the enemy. In ancient times, it even happened that opponents politely waited until everyone was properly prepared for battle ... And much later, in the 12th century, the Russian prince Vladimir Monomakh in his famous “Instruction” warned against hasty removal of armor immediately after the battle.

shell

In the pre-Mongol era, chain mail prevailed. In the XII - XIII centuries, along with the appearance of heavy combat cavalry, the necessary strengthening of protective armor also took place. Plastic armor began to improve rapidly.
The metal plates of the shell went one after the other, giving the impression of scales; in places of imposition, protection turned out to be double. In addition, the plates were curved, which made it possible to even better deflect or soften the blows of enemy weapons.
In post-Mongolian times, chain mail gradually gives way to armor.
According to the latest research, plate armor has been known on the territory of our country since the Scythian time. Armor appeared in the Russian army during the formation of the state - in the VIII-X centuries.

The most ancient system, which was kept in military use for a very long time, did not require a leather base. Elongated rectangular plates measuring 8-10X1.5-3.5 cm were directly connected with straps. Such armor reached the hips and was divided in height into horizontal rows of closely compressed oblong plates. The armor expanded downwards and had sleeves. This design was not purely Slavic; on the other side of the Baltic Sea, on the Swedish island of Gotland, near the city of Visby, a completely similar shell was found, however, without sleeves and expansion at the bottom. It consisted of six hundred and twenty-eight records.
Scale armor was arranged quite differently. Plates measuring 6x4-6 cm, that is, almost square, were laced to a leather or dense fabric base from one edge and moved over each other like tiles. So that the plates do not move away from the base and do not bristle upon impact or sudden movement, they were fastened to the base with one or two central rivets. Compared to the "belt weaving" system, such a shell turned out to be more elastic.
In Muscovite Rus', it was called the Turkic word "kuyak". The armor of belt weaving was then called "yaryk" or "koyar".
There were also combined armor, for example, chain mail on the chest, scaly on the sleeves and hem.

Very early appeared in Rus' and the predecessors of the "real" knightly armor. A number of items, such as iron elbow pads, are even considered the oldest in Europe. Scientists boldly rank Rus' among those states of Europe where the protective equipment of a warrior has progressed especially quickly. This speaks of the military prowess of our ancestors, and of the high skill of blacksmiths, who were not inferior to anyone in Europe in their craft.

Helmet

The study of ancient Russian weapons began in 1808 with the discovery of a helmet made in the 12th century. He was often depicted in his paintings by Russian artists.

Russian combat headgear can be divided into several types. One of the oldest is the so-called conical helmet. Such a helmet was found during excavations in a burial mound of the 10th century. An ancient master forged it from two halves and connected it with a strip with a double row of rivets. The lower edge of the helmet is pulled together with a hoop equipped with a number of loops for aventail - chain mail that covered the neck and head from behind and on the sides. All of it is covered with silver and decorated with gilded silver overlays, which depict Saints George, Basil, Fedor. On the frontal part there is an image of the Archangel Michael with the inscription: "Great Archangel Michael, help your slave Fedor." Griffins, birds, leopards are engraved along the edge of the helmet, between which lilies and leaves are placed.

For Rus', "spherical-conical" helmets were much more characteristic. This form proved to be much more convenient, as it successfully deflected blows that could cut through a conical helmet.
They were usually made of four plates, which were located one on top of the other (front and back - on the side) and connected with rivets. At the bottom of the helmet, with the help of a rod inserted into the eyelets, an aventail was attached. Scientists call such fastening of the aventail very perfect. On Russian helmets, there were even special devices that protected chain mail links from premature abrasion and breakage upon impact.
The craftsmen who made them took care of both durability and beauty. The iron plates of the helmets are figuratively carved, and this pattern is similar in style to wood and stone carvings. In addition, the helmets were covered with gold in combination with silver. They looked on the heads of their brave owners, no doubt, great. It is no coincidence that the monuments of ancient Russian literature compare the brilliance of polished helmets with the dawn, and the commander galloped across the battlefield, “shimmering with a golden helmet.” A brilliant, beautiful helmet not only spoke of the wealth and nobility of a warrior - it was also a kind of beacon for subordinates, helping to look out for a leader. He was seen not only by friends, but also by enemies, as befitted a hero-leader.
The elongated pommel of this type of helmet sometimes ends in a sleeve for a sultan made of feathers or dyed horsehair. It is interesting that another decoration of similar helmets, the “yalovets” flag, was much more famous. The Yalovites most often painted red, and the chronicles compare them with "fiery flames."
But black hoods (nomads who lived in the Ros river basin) wore tetrahedral helmets with "platbands" - masks that covered the entire face.

From the spherical-conical helmets of Ancient Rus', the later Moscow "shishak" occurred.
There was a type of a steep-sided domed helmet with a half-mask - nosepiece and circles for the eyes.
Helmet decorations included floral and animal ornaments, images of angels, Christian saints, martyrs, and even the Almighty himself. Of course, the gilded images were intended not only to "shine" over the battlefield. They also magically protected the warrior, taking the enemy's hand away from him. Unfortunately, it didn't always help...
Helmets were supplied with a soft lining. It's not very pleasant to wear an iron headdress directly on your head, not to mention what it's like to wear an unlined helmet in battle, under the blow of an enemy ax or sword.
It also became known that the Scandinavian and Slavic helmets fastened under the chin. Viking helmets were also equipped with special cheek pads made of leather, reinforced with figured metal plates.

In the VIII - X centuries, the shields of the Slavs, like those of their neighbors, were round, about a meter in diameter. The oldest round shields were flat and consisted of several boards (about 1.5 cm thick) connected together, covered with leather and fastened with rivets. On the outer surface of the shield, especially along the edge, there were iron fittings, while in the middle a round hole was sawn, which was covered by a convex metal plaque designed to repel the blow - “umbon”. Initially, the umbons had a spherical shape, but in the 10th century more convenient sphero-conical ones arose.
Straps were attached to the inside of the shield, into which the warrior passed his hand, as well as a strong wooden rail that served as a handle. There was also a shoulder strap so that a warrior could throw a shield behind his back during a retreat, if necessary, use two hands or just when transporting.

The almond-shaped shield was also considered very famous. The height of such a shield was from a third to a half of human height, and not up to the shoulder of a standing person. The shields were flat or slightly curved along the longitudinal axis, the ratio of height and width was two to one. They made almond-shaped shields, like round ones, from leather and wood, supplied with fetters and umbon. With the advent of a more reliable helmet and long, knee-length chain mail, the almond-shaped shield decreased in size, lost the umbon and, possibly, other metal parts.
But around the same time, the shield acquires not only combat, but also heraldic significance. It was on the shields of this form that many knightly coats of arms appeared.

The desire of the warrior to decorate and paint his shield also manifested itself. It is easy to guess that the most ancient drawings on the shields served as amulets and were supposed to ward off a dangerous blow from the warrior. Their contemporaries, the Vikings, put on the shields all kinds of sacred symbols, images of Gods and heroes, often forming whole genre scenes. They even had a special kind of poem - “shield drape”: having received a painted shield as a gift from the leader, a person had to describe in verse everything that is depicted on it.
The background of the shield was painted in a variety of colors. It is known that the Slavs preferred red. Since mythological thinking has long associated the “alarming” red color with blood, struggle, physical violence, conception, birth and death. Red, like white, was considered by Russians as a sign of mourning back in the 19th century.

In ancient Rus', the shield was a prestigious weapon for a professional warrior. Our ancestors swore by shields, fastening international agreements; the dignity of the shield was protected by law - anyone who dared to spoil, "break" the shield or steal it had to pay a hefty fine. The loss of shields - they were known to be thrown to facilitate escape - was synonymous with complete defeat in battle. It is no coincidence that the shield, as one of the symbols of military honor, has also become a symbol of the victorious state: take the legend of Prince Oleg, who hoisted his shield on the gates of the “bowed” Constantinople!

A story about the life of the ancient Slavs will help you learn basic information about these peoples. The life and way of life of the ancient Slavs will briefly help to make a report.

"The life of the ancient Slavs" report

Slavs are an ancient indigenous population of Eastern Europe. It is one of the most numerous groups of ancient Indo-European culture. According to archaeological excavations, the ancient Slavs became known at the end of the 2nd millennium BC. Famous historians of the 6th century divided the population into three groups - Antes (Eastern), Wends (Western) and Sklavens (Southern). They settled from the rivers Elbe and Vistula to the Dnieper and from the Carpathians and the Black Sea region to the Baltic.

The main occupation of the Slavs was agriculture. It formed a way of life, culture, way of life, faith. The people believed in higher power nature. Harvest, livestock, prosperity - all this depended on the gods. The Slavs considered Dazhbog, the patron saint of the sun, to be the supreme deity. Also among the famous gods were Svarog and Kolyada - the patrons of the sky, Yarilo - the god of spring, Lada - the goddess of happiness and others. Subsequently, such a faith would be called paganism.

The Slavs considered nature to be living, life-giving. They believed that the forest is the home of goblin, and mermaids live in the water. Grandfather Brownie was for the tribe the personification of the spirit of their ancestors. After all, the Slavs revered and protected their traditions.

Modern Slavic peoples were formed over a long time. They had many ancestors. These include the Slavs themselves and their neighbors, who significantly influenced the life, culture and religion of these tribes, when they still lived according to the foundations of the tribal community.

Antes and Slavins

Until now, historians and archaeologists have put forward a variety of theories about who the Slavic ancestors could be. The ethnogenesis of this people took place in an era from which there are almost no written sources left. Specialists had to restore the early history of the Slavs to the smallest grains. Byzantine chronicles are of great value. It was the Eastern Roman Empire that had to experience the pressure of the tribes, which eventually formed the Slavic people.

The first evidence of them dates back to the 6th century. Slavic ancestors in Byzantine sources were called Antes. The famous historian wrote about them. At first, the Ants lived in the interfluve of the Dniester and Dnieper in the territory of modern Ukraine. During their heyday they lived in the steppes from the Don to the Balkans.

If the Antes belonged to the eastern group of Slavs, then to the west of them lived their kindred Slavs. The first mention of them remained in Jordan's Getica, written in the middle of the 6th century. Sometimes the Sclaveni were also called Veneti. These tribes lived on the territory of modern Czech Republic.

social order

The inhabitants of Byzantium believed that the Slavic ancestors were barbarians who did not know civilization. It really was. Both the Slavins and the Antes lived under democracy. They did not have a single ruler and statehood. The early Slavic society consisted of many communities, the core of each of which was a certain clan. Such descriptions are found in Byzantine sources and are confirmed by the findings of modern archaeologists. The settlements consisted of large dwellings in which large families lived. In one settlement there could be about 20 houses. Among the Slavs, a hearth was common, among the Antes - a stove. In the north, the Slavs built log cabins.

Customs corresponded to cruel patriarchal mores. For example, ritual murders of wives were practiced at the grave of a spouse. Slavic ancestors were engaged in agriculture, which was the main source of food. Wheat, millet, barley, oats, rye were grown. Cattle were bred: sheep, pigs, ducks, chickens. The craft was poorly developed compared to the same Byzantium. Basically, it served domestic household needs.

Army and slavery

Gradually, a social stratum of warriors emerged in the community. They often organized raids on Byzantium and other neighboring countries. The goal has always been the same - robbery and slaves. Ancient Slavic squads could include several thousand people. It was in the military environment that governors and princes appeared. The first ancestors of the Slavs fought with spears (less often with swords). Throwing weapons, the sulica, were also widespread. It was used not only in combat, but also in hunting.

It is known for certain that slavery was widespread among the Ants. The number of slaves could reach tens of thousands of people. Mostly they were prisoners captured in the war. That is why there were many Byzantines among the Antes slaves. As a rule, the Antes kept slaves in order to get a ransom for them. However, some of them were employed in the economy and crafts.

Avars invasion

In the middle of the 6th century, the lands of the Ants came under attack from the Avars. These were nomadic tribes whose rulers bore the title of kagan. Their ethnicity remains a subject of controversy: some consider them to be Turks, others to speak Iranian languages. The ancestors of the ancient Slavs, although they were in a subservient position, noticeably crowded the Avars in their numbers. This relationship has led to confusion. The Byzantines (for example, John of Ephesus and completely identified the Slavs and Avars, although such an assessment was a mistake.

The invasion from the east led to a significant migration of the population, who had previously lived in one place for a long time. Together with the Avars, the Antes first moved to Pannonia (modern Hungary), and later began to invade the Balkans, which belonged to Byzantium.

The Slavs became the basis of the army of the kaganate. The most famous episode of their confrontation with the empire was the siege of Constantinople in 626. The history of the ancient Slavs is known from brief episodes of their interaction with the Greeks. The siege of Constantinople was just such an example. Despite the assault, the Slavs and Avars failed to take the city.

Nevertheless, the onslaught of the pagans continued in the future. Back in 602, the Lombard king sent his shipbuilding masters to the Slavs. They settled in Dubrovnik. The first Slavic ships (monoxyls) appeared in this port. They took part in the already mentioned siege of Constantinople. And at the end of the 6th century, the Slavs laid siege to Thessaloniki for the first time. Soon thousands of pagans moved to Thrace. Then the Slavs appeared on the territory of modern Croatia and Serbia.

East Slavs

The unsuccessful siege of Constantinople in 626 undermined the forces of the Avar Khaganate. Slavs everywhere began to get rid of the yoke of strangers. In Moravia Samo raised an uprising. He became the first Slavic prince known by name. At the same time, his fellow tribesmen began their expansion to the east. In the 7th century, the colonialists became neighbors of the Khazars. They managed to penetrate even into the Crimea and get to the Caucasus. Where the ancestors of the Slavs lived and their settlements were founded, there was always a river or lake, as well as land suitable for cultivation.

The city of Kyiv appeared on the Dnieper, named after Prince Kyi. Here a new tribal union of polyans was formed, which, among several other such unions, replaced the ants. In the 7th-8th centuries, three groups of Slavic peoples were finally formed, which still exist today (western, southern and eastern). The latter settled on the territory of modern Ukraine, Belarus, and in the interfluve of the Volga and Oka, their settlements ended up within the borders of Russia.

In Byzantium, Slavs and Scythians were often identified. This was a serious Greek error. The Scythians belonged to Iranian tribes and spoke Iranian languages. During their heyday, they inhabited, among other things, the Dnieper steppes, as well as the Crimea. When the Slavic colonization got there, regular conflicts began between the new neighbors. A serious danger was the cavalry, which was owned by the Scythians. The ancestors of the Slavs for many years held back their invasions, until, finally, the nomads were swept away by the Goths.

Tribal unions and cities of the Eastern Slavs

In the northeast, the neighbors of the Slavs were numerous Finno-Ugric tribes, including the whole and Merya. The settlements of Rostov, Beloozero and Staraya Ladoga appeared here. Another city, Novgorod, became an important political center. In 862, the Varangian Rurik began to reign in it. This event was the beginning of Russian statehood.

The cities of the Eastern Slavs appeared mainly in places where the Path from the Varangians to the Greeks ran. This trade artery led from the Baltic Sea to Byzantium. Along the way, merchants transported valuable goods: ambergris, whale skin, amber, marten and sable furs, honey, wax, etc. The goods were delivered on boats. The path of the ships ran along the rivers. Part of the route ran on land. In these areas, the boats were transported by portage, as a result of which the cities of Toropets and Smolensk appeared on the ground.

The East Slavic tribes lived apart from each other for a long time, and often they were at enmity and fought among themselves. This made them vulnerable to neighbors. For this reason, at the beginning of the 9th century, some East Slavic tribal unions began to pay tribute to the Khazars. Others were heavily dependent on the Varangians. The Tale of Bygone Years mentions a dozen such tribal unions: Buzhans, Volhynians, Dregovichi, Drevlyans, Krivichi, Polyana, Polochan, Severyans, Radimichi, Tivertsy, White Croats and Ulichi. A single culture for all of them developed only in the XI-XII centuries. after the formation of Kievan Rus and the adoption of Christianity. Later, this ethnic group was divided into Russians, Belarusians and Ukrainians. This is the answer to the question of whose ancestors are the Eastern Slavs.

South Slavs

The Slavs who settled in the Balkans gradually separated themselves from their other tribesmen and made up the South Slavic tribes. Today their descendants are Serbs, Bulgarians, Croats, Bosnians, Macedonians, Montenegrins and Slovenes. If the ancestors of the Eastern Slavs inhabited mostly empty lands, then their southern counterparts got the land, in which there were many settlements founded by the Romans. From the ancient civilization there were also roads along which the pagans quickly moved around the Balkans. Before them, Byzantium owned the peninsula. However, the empire had to cede the land to strangers due to constant wars in the east with the Persians and internal turmoil.

In the new lands, the ancestors of the southern Slavs mixed with the autochthonous (local) Greek population. In the mountains, the colonialists had to face the resistance of the Vlachs, as well as the Albanians. The outsiders also clashed with the Christian Greeks. The resettlement of the Slavs to the Balkans ended in the 620s.

Neighborhood with Christians and regular contacts with them had a great influence on the new masters of the Balkans. The paganism of the Slavs in this region was eradicated the fastest. Christianization was both natural and encouraged by Byzantium. First, the Greeks, trying to understand who the Slavs were, sent embassies to them, and then preachers followed them. Emperors regularly sent missionaries to dangerous neighbors, hoping in this way to increase their influence on the barbarians. So, for example, the baptism of the Serbs began under Heraclius, who ruled in 610-641. The process went on gradually. The new religion took root among the southern Slavs in the second half of the ninth century. Then the princes Rashki were baptized, after which they converted their subjects to the Christian faith.

It is interesting that if the Serbs became the flock of the Eastern Church in Constantinople, then their brothers the Croats turned their gaze to the West. This was due to the fact that in 812 the Frankish emperor Charlemagne concluded an agreement with the Byzantine king Michael I Rangava, according to which part of the Adriatic coast of the Balkans became dependent on the Franks. They were Catholics and, during their short reign in the region, baptized Croats according to their Western custom. And although in the 9th century the Christian church was still considered one, the great schism of 1054 noticeably alienated Catholics and Orthodox from each other.

Western Slavs

The western group of Slavic tribes settled vast territories from the Elbe to the Carpathians. She laid the foundation for the Polish, Czech and Slovak people. To the west of all lived Bodrichi, Lutichi, Lusatians and Pomeranians. In the 6th century, this Polabian group of Slavs occupied about a third of the territory modern Germany. Conflicts between tribes of different ethnicity were constant. The new colonialists pushed the Lombards, Varins and Rugs (who spoke

Curious evidence of the presence of the Slavs on the present German soil is the name of Berlin. Linguists have figured out the nature of the origin of this word. In the language of the Polabian Slavs, "burlin" meant a dam. There are many of them in the northeast of Germany. That's how far the ancestors of the Slavs penetrated. Back in 623, these same colonists joined Prince Samo in his uprising against the Avars. Periodically, under the successors of Charlemagne, the Polabian Slavs entered into an alliance with the Franks in their campaigns against the Khaganate.

German feudal lords launched an offensive against strangers in the 9th century. Gradually, the Slavs who lived on the banks of the Elbe submitted to them. Today, only small isolated groups remain of them, including several thousand people each, who have retained their own unique dialect, unlike even Polish. In the Middle Ages, the Germans called all neighboring Western Slavs Wends.

Language and writing

To understand who the Slavs are, it is best to turn to the history of their language. Once upon a time, when this people was still united, they had one dialect. It received the name of the Proto-Slavic language. There are no written records left of him. It is only known that it belonged to an extensive Indo-European family of languages, which makes it related to many other languages: Germanic, Romance, etc. Some linguists and historians put forward additional theories about its origin. According to one of the hypotheses, the Proto-Slavic language at some stage of its development was part of the Proto-Balto-Slavic language, until the Baltic languages ​​separated into their own group.

Gradually, each nation developed its own dialect. On the basis of one of these dialects, which was spoken by the Slavs who lived in the vicinity of the city of Thessalonica, the brothers Cyril and Methodius created Slavic Christian writing in the 9th century. Enlighteners did this by order of the Byzantine emperor. Writing was necessary for the translation of Christian books and sermons among the pagans. Over time, it became known as Cyrillic. This alphabet today is the basis of the Belarusian, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Russian, Serbian, Ukrainian and Montenegrin languages. The rest of the Slavs who converted to Catholicism use the Latin alphabet.

In the 20th century, archaeologists began to find many artifacts that became monuments of ancient Cyrillic writing. Novgorod became the key place for these excavations. Thanks to the finds in its vicinity, experts learned a lot about what the ancient Slavic writing and culture.

For example, the so-called Gnezdovskaya inscription, made on a clay jug in the middle of the 10th century, is considered the oldest East Slavic text in Cyrillic. The artifact was found in 1949 by archaeologist Daniil Avdusin. A thousand kilometers away, back in 1912, a lead seal with a Cyrillic inscription was discovered in an ancient Kyiv church. The archaeologists who deciphered it decided that it means the name of Prince Svyatoslav, who ruled in 945-972. It is interesting that at that time paganism remained the main religion in Rus', although Christianity and the same Cyrillic alphabet were already in Bulgaria. in such ancient inscriptions help to more accurately identify the artifact.

The question of whether the Slavs had their own written language before the adoption of Christianity remains open. Fragmentary references to it are found in some authors of that era, but these inaccurate evidence are not enough to draw up a complete picture. Perhaps the Slavs used cuts and features to convey information using images. Such letters could be of a ritual nature and used in divination.

Religion and culture

The pre-Christian paganism of the Slavs developed over several centuries and acquired independent unique features. This faith consisted of the spiritualization of nature, animism, animatism, the cult of supernatural forces, the veneration of ancestors and magic. The original mythological texts that would help lift the veil of secrecy over Slavic paganism have not survived to this day. Historians can judge this faith only from the annals, chronicles, testimonies of foreigners and other secondary sources.

In the mythology of the Slavs, traits inherent in other Indo-European cults can be traced. For example, in the pantheon there are wars (Perun), the god of the other world and cattle (Veles), a deity with the image of Father-Heaven (Stribog). All this in one form or another is also found in Iranian, Baltic and German mythology.

The gods for the Slavs were the highest sacred beings. The fate of any person depended on their complacency. In the most important, responsible and dangerous moments, each tribe turned to its supernatural patrons. The Slavs had widespread sculptures of gods (idols). They were made of wood and stone. The most famous episode associated with idols was mentioned in chronicles in connection with the Baptism of Rus'. Prince Vladimir, as a sign of acceptance of the new faith, ordered that the idols of the old gods be thrown into the Dnieper. This act was a clear demonstration of the beginning new era. Even despite the Christianization that began at the end of the 10th century, paganism continued to live, especially in the remote and bearish corners of Rus'. Some of its features were mixed with Orthodoxy and preserved in the form of folk customs (for example, calendar holidays). Interestingly, Slavic names often appeared as references to religious views (for example, Bogdan - “given by God”, etc.).

For the worship of pagan spirits, there were special sanctuaries, which were called temples. The life of the ancestors of the Slavs was closely connected with these sacred places. Temple premises existed only among the western tribes (Poles, Czechs), while their eastern counterparts did not have such buildings. Old Russian sanctuaries were open groves. Rites of worship to the gods were held at the temples.

In addition to idols, the Slavs, like the Baltic tribes, had sacred boulder stones. Perhaps this custom was adopted from the Finno-Ugric peoples. The cult of ancestors was associated with the Slavic funeral rite. During the funeral, ritual dances and chants (trizna) were arranged. The body of the deceased was not interred, but burned at the stake. Ashes and the remaining bones were collected in a special vessel, which was left at a post on the road.

The history of the ancient Slavs would have been completely different if all the tribes had not accepted Christianity. Both Orthodoxy and Catholicism included them in a single European medieval civilization.

Origin of the Slavs

Until the end of the 18th century, science could not give a satisfactory answer to the question of the origin of the Slavs, although even then it attracted the attention of scientists. This is evidenced by the first attempts at that time to give an outline of the history of the Slavs, in which this question was raised. All statements connecting the Slavs with such ancient peoples as Sarmatians, Getae, Alans, Illyrians, Thracians, Vandals, etc., statements appearing in various chronicles since the beginning of the 16th century, are based only on an arbitrary, tendentious interpretation scripture and church literature, or on the simple succession of peoples who once inhabited the same territory as the modern Slavs, or, finally, on the purely external similarity of some ethnic names.

This was the case before early XIX century. Only a few historians were able to rise above the level of science of that time, in which the solution of the question of the origin of the Slavs could not be scientifically substantiated and had no prospects. The situation changed for the better only in the first half of the 19th century under the influence of two new scientific disciplines: comparative linguistics and anthropology; both of them introduced new positive facts.

History itself is silent. There is not a single historical fact, not a single reliable tradition, not even a mythological genealogy that would help us answer the question of the origin of the Slavs. Slavs appear on the historical arena unexpectedly as a great and already formed people; we don't even know where he came from or what his relations with other nations were. Only one piece of evidence brings apparent clarity to the question that interests us: this is a well-known passage from the chronicle attributed to Nestor and preserved to our time in the form in which it was written in Kiev in the 12th century; this passage can be considered a kind of "birth certificate" of the Slavs.

The first part of the chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years" began to be created at least a century earlier. At the beginning of the chronicle, a rather detailed legendary story is given about the settlement of peoples who once tried to erect a Tower of Babel in the land of Shinar. This information is borrowed from the Byzantine chronicles of the 6th-9th centuries (the so-called "Easter" chronicle and the chronicle of Malala and Amartol); however, in the corresponding places of the named chronicles there is not a single mention of the Slavs. This gap obviously offended the Slavic chronicler, the venerable monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra. He wanted to make up for it by placing his people among those peoples who, according to tradition, lived in Europe; therefore, as an explanation, he added the name "Slavs" to the name of the Illyrians - Illyro-Slavs. With this addition, he included the Slavs in history without even changing the traditional number of 72 peoples. It was here that the Illyrians were first called a people related to the Slavs, and since that time this point of view has been dominant in the study of the history of the Slavs for a long time. The Slavs came from Shinar to Europe and settled first on the Balkan Peninsula. There you need to look for their cradle, their European ancestral home, in the lands of the Illyrians, Thracians, in Pannonia, on the banks of the Danube. Separate Slavic tribes later emerged from here, when their original unity broke up, in order to occupy their historical lands between the Danube, the Baltic Sea and the Dnieper.

This theory was first accepted by all Slavic historiography, and in particular by the old Polish school (Kadlubek, Boguhval, Merzhva, Chronica Polonorum, Chronica principum Poloniae, Dlugosh, etc.) and Czech (Dalimil, Jan Marignola, Pshybik Pulkava, Hayek from Libochan , B. Paprocki); in the future, she acquired new conjectures.

Then a new theory emerged. We don't know where exactly it originated. It should be assumed that it arose outside the mentioned schools, because for the first time we meet this theory in the Bavarian Chronicle of the XIII century and later among German and Italian scientists (Flav. Blondus, A. Coccius Sabellicus, F. Irenicus, B. Rhenanus, A. Krantz etc.). Slavic historians B. Vapovsky, M. Kromer, S. Dubravius, T. Peshina from Chekhorod, J. Bekovsky, J. Matias from the Sudetes and many others adopted this theory from them. According to the second theory, the Slavs allegedly moved north along the Black Sea coast and initially settled in southern Russia, where the ancient Scythians and Sarmatians, and later the Alans, Roxolans, etc., were known in history. , as well as the idea of ​​the Balkan Sarmatians as the ancestors of all Slavs. Moving further west, the Slavs allegedly split into two main branches: South Slavs (south of the Carpathians) and Northern Slavs (north of the Carpathians).

So, along with the theory of the initial division of the Slavs into two branches, the Balkan and Sarmatian theories appeared; both of them had their enthusiastic followers, both have survived until our days. Even now there are often books in which ancient history Slavs is based on their identification with the Sarmatians or with the Thracians, Dacians and Illyrians. Nevertheless, already at the end of the 18th century, some scientists realized that such theories, based only on the alleged analogy of various peoples with the Slavs, were of no value. The Czech Slavist J. Dobrovsky wrote in 1810 to his friend Kopitar: “Such studies make me happy. Only I come to a completely different conclusion. All this proves to me that the Slavs are not Dacians, Getae, Thracians, Illyrians, Pannonians ... Slavs are Slavs, and Lithuanians are closest to them. So, they must be sought among the latter on the Dnieper or beyond the Dnieper.

Some historians held the same views even before Dobrovsky. After him, Shafarik in his "Slavic Antiquities" refuted the views of all previous researchers. If in his early writings he was greatly influenced by the old theories, then in Antiquities, published in 1837, he rejected, with a few exceptions, these hypotheses as erroneous. Šafarik based his book on a careful analysis historical facts. Therefore, his work will forever remain the main and indispensable tool for this issue, despite the fact that the problem of the origin of the Slavs is not resolved in it - such a task exceeded the capabilities of the most rigorous historical analysis that time.

Other scientists turned to a new science - comparative linguistics, in order to find an answer in it that history could not give them. Mutual kinship of the Slavic languages ​​was allowed as early as the beginning of the 12th century (see the Kyiv Chronicle), but for a long time the true degree of kinship of the Slavic languages ​​with other European languages ​​was unknown. The first attempts made in the 17th and XVIII centuries to find out (G. W. Leibniz, P. Ch. Levesque, Fr?ret, Court de Gebelin, J. Dankowsky, K. G. Anton, J. Chr. Adelung, Iv. Levanda, B. Siestrzencewicz, etc.) had the disadvantage that were either too indecisive or simply unreasonable. When W. Jones in 1786 established the common origin of Sanskrit, Gaulish, Greek, Latin, German and Old Persian, he had not yet determined the place of the Slavic language in the family of these languages.

Only F. Bopp, in the second volume of his famous “Comparative Grammar” (“Vergleichende Grammatik”, 1833), solved the question of the relationship of the Slavic language with the rest of the Indo-European languages ​​and thus gave the first scientifically sound answer to the question of the origin of the Slavs, which historians unsuccessfully tried to resolve . The solution of the question of the origin of the language is at the same time the answer to the question of the origin of the people who speak this language.

Since that time there have been many disputes about the Indo-Europeans and the nature of their language. Various views have been expressed, which are now rightly rejected and have lost all value. It has only been proved that none of the known languages ​​is the ancestor of the other languages, and that there never existed an Indo-European people of a single unmixed race that would have had a single language and a single culture. Along with this, the following provisions have been adopted that underlie our current views:

1. Once there was a common Indo-European language, which, however, was never fully unified.

2. The development of dialects of this language led to the emergence of a number of languages ​​that we call Indo-European or Aryan. These include, apart from the languages ​​that disappeared without a trace, Greek, Latin, Gaulish, German, Albanian, Armenian, Lithuanian, Persian, Sanskrit and common Slavic or Proto-Slavic, which for quite a long time developed into modern Slavic languages. The beginning of the existence of the Slavic peoples refers precisely to the time when this common language was formed.

The evolution of this language is still unclear. Science has not yet advanced so far as to adequately shed light on this issue. It has only been established that a number of factors contributed to the formation of new languages ​​and peoples: the spontaneous force of differentiation, local differences that arose as a result of the isolation of individual groups, and, finally, the assimilation of foreign elements. But to what extent did each of these factors contribute to the emergence of a common Slavic language? This question is almost not resolved, and therefore the history of the common Slavic language has not yet been clarified.

The development of the Aryan proto-language could take place in two ways: either by a sudden and complete separation of different dialects and the peoples speaking them from the mother trunk, or by decentralization associated with the formation of new dialect centers, which isolated themselves gradually, without completely breaking away from the original core, that is, not having lost contact with other dialects and peoples. Both of these hypotheses had their adherents. The pedigree proposed by A. Schleicher, as well as the pedigree compiled by A. Fick, are well known; the theory of "waves" (?bergangs-Wellen-Theorie) by Johann Schmidt is also known. In accordance with various concepts, the view of the origin of the Proto-Slavs also changed, as can be seen from the two diagrams below.

Pedigree of A. Schleicher, compiled in 1865

Pedigree of A. Fick

When the differences in the Indo-European language began to increase and when this large linguistic community began to break up into two groups - the satem languages ​​​​(satem) and centum (centum), - the Proto-Slavic language, combined with the Pralitic language, was part of the first group for quite a long time, so that it retained special similarity with the ancient Thracian (Armenian) and Indo-Iranian languages. The connection with the Thracians was closest in the outlying areas, where the historical Dacians later lived. The ancestors of the Germans were in the Kentum group of peoples among the closest neighbors of the Slavs. We can judge this by some analogies in the Slavic and German languages.

At the beginning of the second millennium BC. e. all Indo-European languages, in all likelihood, have already formed and divided, since during this millennium some Aryan peoples appear on the territory of Europe and Asia as already established ethnic units. The future Lithuanians were then still allied with the Proto-Slavs. The Slavic-Lithuanian people still represent (with the exception of the Indo-Iranian languages) the only example of a primitive community of two Aryan peoples; its neighbors have always been Germans and Celts on one side, and Thracians and Iranians on the other.

After the separation of the Lithuanians from the Slavs, which occurred, in all likelihood, in the second or first millennium BC. e., the Slavs formed a single people with a common language and only barely noticeable dialectal differences and remained in this state until the beginning of our era. During the first millennium of our era, their unity began to disintegrate, new languages ​​\u200b\u200bwere developing (though still very close to each other) and new Slavic peoples arose. Such is the information that linguistics gives us, such is its answer to the question of the origin of the Slavs.

Along with comparative linguistics, another science appeared - anthropology, which also brought new additional facts. The Swedish researcher A. Retzius in 1842 began to determine the place of the Slavs among other peoples from a somatological point of view, based on the shape of their head, and created a system based on the study of the relative length of the skull and the magnitude of the facial angle. He united the ancient Germans, Celts, Romans, Greeks, Hindus, Persians, Arabs and Jews into the group of "dolichocephalic (long-headed) orthognathians", and the Ugric peoples, European Turks, Albanians, Basques, ancient Etruscans, Latvians and Slavs into the group of "brachycephalic (short-headed ) orthognathians". Both groups were of different origin, so the race to which the Slavs belonged was completely alien to the race to which the Germans and Celts belonged. It is obvious that one of them had to be "Aryanized" by the other and adopt the Indo-European language from it. A. Retzius did not particularly try to determine the relationship between language and race. This question arose later in the first French and German anthropological schools. German scientists, relying on new studies of German burials of the Merovingian era (V-VIII centuries) with the so-called "Reihengr?ber", created, in accordance with the Retzius system, the theory of an ancient pure Germanic race with a relatively long head (dolichocephals or mesocephals) and with some characteristic external features: rather tall, pink complexion, blond hair, light eyes. This race was opposed by another, smaller one, with a shorter head (brachycephalic), darker skin color, brown hair and dark eyes; the main representatives of this race were supposed to be the Slavs and the ancient inhabitants of France - the Celts, or Gauls.

In France, the school of the eminent anthropologist P. Broca (E. Hamy, Ab. Hovelacque, P. Topinard, R. Collignon and others) adopted approximately the same point of view; so in anthropological science there was a theory about two original races that once inhabited Europe and from which a family of peoples speaking the Indo-European language was formed. It remained to find out - and this caused a lot of controversy - which of the two original races was Aryan and which was "Aryanized" by another race.

The Germans almost always considered the first race, long-headed and blond, to be the Proto-Aryan race, and this point of view was shared by leading English anthropologists (Thurnam, Huxley, Sayce, Rendall). In France, by contrast, opinions were divided. Some joined the German theory (Lapouge), while others (they were in the majority) considered the second race, dark and brachycephalic, often called the Celtic-Slavic, the original race, which transmitted the Indo-European language to the North European blond foreigners. Since its main features, brachycephaly and dark coloration of hair and eyes, brought this race closer to the Central Asian peoples with similar features, it was even suggested that it was related to the Finns, Mongols and Turans. The place assigned, according to this theory, to the Proto-Slavs is easy to determine: the Proto-Slavs came from Central Asia, they had a relatively short head, dark eyes and hair. Brachycephals with dark eyes and hair populated Central Europe, mainly its mountainous regions, and mingled partly with the northern long-headed and blond neighbors, partly with more ancient peoples, namely with the dark dolichocephals of the Mediterranean. According to one version, the Proto-Slavs, having mingled with the first, transmitted their speech to them, according to another version, on the contrary, they themselves accepted their speech.

However, the supporters of this theory of the Turanian origin of the Slavs based their conclusions on an erroneous or, at least, insufficiently substantiated hypothesis. They relied on the results obtained in the study of two groups of sources very distant from each other in time: the original Germanic type was determined from early sources - documents and burials of the 5th-8th centuries, while the Proto-Slavic type was established from relatively late sources, since early sources were still little known at that time. Thus, incomparable values ​​were compared - the current state of one people with the former state of another people. Therefore, as soon as the ancient Slavic burials were discovered and new craniological data were revealed, the supporters of this theory immediately met with numerous difficulties, at the same time, an in-depth study of ethnographic material also yielded a number of new facts. It was established that the skulls from the Slavic burials of the 9th-12th centuries are mostly of the same elongated shape as the skulls of the ancient Germans, and are very close to them; it was also noted that historical documents give descriptions of the ancient Slavs as a blond people with light or blue eyes, pink faces. It turned out that among the northern Slavs (at least among most of them) some of these physical traits prevail to this day.

The ancient burials of the South Russian Slavs contained skeletons, of which 80-90% had dolichocephalic and mesocephalic skulls; burials of northerners on Psel - 98%; burials of the Drevlyans - 99%; burials of glades in the Kyiv region - 90%, ancient Poles in Plock - 97.5%, in Slabozhev - 97%; burials of the ancient Polabian Slavs in Mecklenburg - 81%; burials of Lusatian Serbs in Leibengen in Saxony - 85%; in Burglengenfeld in Bavaria - 93%. Czech anthropologists, when studying the skeletons of ancient Czechs, found that among the latter, skulls of dolichocephalic forms were more common than among modern Czechs. I. Gellich established (in 1899) among the ancient Czechs 28% dolichocephalic and 38.5% mesocephalic individuals; these numbers have risen since then.

In the first text, which mentions the Slavs of the 6th century, who lived on the banks of the Danube, it is said that the Slavs are not black and not white, but dark blondes:

„?? ?? ?????? ??? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ????, ? ?????? ?????, ???? ?? ?? ?? ????? ?????? ???????? ?????????, ???? ????????? ????? ???????“.

Almost all ancient Arabic evidence of the 7th-10th centuries characterizes the Slavs as fair-haired (ashab); only Ibrahim Ibn-Yakub, a Jewish traveler of the 10th century, notes: "It is interesting that the inhabitants of the Czech Republic are swarthy." The word "interesting" betrays his surprise that the Czechs are swarthy, from which one can conclude that the rest of the northern Slavs as a whole were not. However, at present, among the northern Slavs, the blond type prevails, and not the brown-haired one.

Some researchers, based on these facts, have adopted a new point of view on the issue of the origin of the Slavs and attributed their ancestors to the blond and dolichocephalic, the so-called Germanic race, formed in Northern Europe. They argued that over the centuries the original Slavic type had changed under the influence of the environment and interbreeding with neighboring races. This point of view was defended among the Germans by R. Virkhov, I. Kolman, T. Pöshe, K. Penka, and among the Russians by A. P. Bogdanov, D. N. Anuchin, K. Ikov, N. Yu. Zograf; I also subscribed to this point of view in my first writings.

However, the problem turned out to be more complex than previously thought, and cannot be solved so easily and simply. In many places, brachycephalic skulls, the remains of dark or black hair, were found in Slavic burials; on the other hand, it must be admitted that the modern somatological structure of the Slavs is very complex and testifies only to the general predominance of the dark and brachycephalic type, the origin of which is difficult to explain. It cannot be considered that this predominance was predetermined by the environment, nor can it be satisfactorily explained by later crossing. I tried to use data from all sources, both old and new, and, proceeding from them, I came to the conclusion that the question of the origin and development of the Slavs is much more complicated than it has hitherto been represented; I believe that the most plausible and probable hypothesis is built on the totality of all these complex factors.

The Pra-Aryan type was not a pure type of a pure race. In the era of Indo-European unity, when internal linguistic differences began to increase, this process was already influenced by various races, especially the northern European dolichocephalic fair-haired race and the Central European brachycephalic dark race. Therefore, individual peoples, formed in this way during the third and second millennium BC. e., were no longer a pure race from a somatological point of view; this also applies to the Slavs. There is no doubt that they were distinguished neither by the purity of their race, nor by the unity of their physical type, for they originated from the two great races mentioned, at the junction of whose lands their ancestral home was; the most ancient historical records, as well as ancient burials, equally testify to this lack of unity of the racial type among the Proto-Slavs. This also explains the great changes that have taken place among the Slavs during the last millennium. There is no doubt that this problem has yet to be carefully considered, but the solution to it - I am convinced - can be based not so much on the recognition of the influence of the environment, but on the recognition of crossing and "struggle for life" of the basic elements available. , that is, the northern dolichocephalic fair-haired race and the Central European brachycephalic dark-haired race.

Thousands of years ago, among the Slavs, the type of the first race prevailed, absorbed at the present time by another race, more viable.

Archeology is currently unable to resolve the issue of the origin of the Slavs. Indeed, it is impossible to trace the Slavic culture from the historical era to those ancient times when the Slavs were formed. In the ideas of archaeologists about Slavic antiquities until the 5th century AD. e. complete confusion reigns, and all their attempts to prove the Slavic character of the Lusatian and Silesian burial fields in eastern Germany and to draw the appropriate conclusions from this have so far been unsuccessful. It was not possible to prove that these burial fields belonged to the Slavs, since the connection of these monuments with unconditionally Slavic burials cannot yet be established. At best, one can only admit the possibility of such an interpretation.

Some German archaeologists suggest that the Proto-Slavic culture was one of the constituent parts of the great Neolithic culture called "Indo-European" or better "Danubian and Transcarpathian" with a variety of ceramics, some of which are painted. This is also permissible, but we do not have positive evidence for this, since the connection of this culture with the historical era is completely unknown to us.

This text is an introductory piece. From the book History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century author Bokhanov Alexander Nikolaevich

§ 1. The origin of the Slavs In our time, the Eastern Slavs (Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians) make up about 85% of the population of Russia, 96% of Ukraine and 98% of Belarus. Even in Kazakhstan, they include about half of the population of the republic. However, this situation has been

From the book The Birth of Rus' author

The origin and ancient destinies of the Slavs In a general form, the provisions of the Normanists boil down to two theses: firstly, the Slavic statehood was created, in their opinion, not by the Slavs, but by the Varangian Europeans, and secondly, the birth of the Slavic statehood did not occur

From the book Slavic Kingdom (historiography) by Orbini Mavro

THE ORIGIN OF THE SLAVES AND THE DISTRIBUTION OF THEIR DOMINATION It is sometimes not difficult to learn about the origin and deeds of many tribes, since either they themselves indulged in literature and the humanities, or, being themselves uneducated and

From the book HISTORY OF RUSSIA from ancient times to 1618. Textbook for universities. In two books. Book one. author Kuzmin Apollon Grigorievich

From B.B. Sedova "The Origin and Early History of the Slavs" (M., 1979) Possibilities of various sciences in the coverage of Slavic ethnogenesis The history of the early Slavs can be studied with the wide cooperation of different sciences - linguistics, archeology, anthropology, ethnography

From the book Barbarian Invasions in Western Europe. Second wave by Musset Lucien

The origin of the Slavs The settlement of the Slavs to the north, west and south during the early Middle Ages - historical event of paramount importance, no less significant in its consequences for the future of Europe than the invasion of the Germans. For two or three centuries a group of tribes,

author Reznikov Kirill Yurievich

3.2. The origin of the Slavs in the annals and chronicles "The Tale of Bygone Years". Traditions about the origin of the Slavs have not been preserved, but in a more or less modified form they ended up in early annals and chronicles. Of these, the oldest is the Old Russian chronicle "The Tale

From the book Russian History: Myths and Facts [From the birth of the Slavs to the conquest of Siberia] author Reznikov Kirill Yurievich

3.10. The origin of the Slavs: scientific reference Written evidence. Indisputable descriptions of the Slavs are known only from the first half of the 6th century. Procopius of Caesarea (born between 490 and 507 - died after 565), secretary of the Byzantine commander Belisarius, wrote about the Slavs in the book “War with

From the book Kievan Rus and Russian principalities of the XII-XIII centuries. author Rybakov Boris Alexandrovich

The origin of the Slavs The starting point for a consistent consideration of the history of the Slavs should be considered the period of sprouting of the Slavic language family from the common Indo-European array, which linguists date to the beginning or middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. To that

author Niederle Lubor

Chapter I Origin of the Slavs Until the end of the 18th century, science could not give a satisfactory answer to the question of the origin of the Slavs, although it had already attracted the attention of scientists. This is evidenced by the first attempts to give an outline of history dating back to that time.

From the book Slavic Antiquities author Niederle Lubor

Part Two Origin of the South Slavs

From the book A Brief Course on the History of Belarus in the 9th-21st centuries author Taras Anatoly Efimovich

The origin of the Slavs Probably, the Proto-Slavic ethnos developed in the area of ​​the Chernyakhov archaeological culture, which existed from the beginning of the 3rd to the middle of the 6th century. This is the region between the Danube in the west and the Dnieper in the east, the Pripyat in the north and the Black Sea in the south. Here was

From the book History of Russia from ancient times to the present day author Sakharov Andrey Nikolaevich

Chapter 1. ORIGIN OF THE SLAVES. THEIR NEIGHBORS AND ENEMIES § 1. The place of the Slavs among the Indo-Europeans At the turn of the III-II millennium BC. e. in the territories between the Vistula and the Dnieper, the isolation of the tribes of the ancestors of European peoples begins. Indo-Europeans - an ancient population of huge

From the book A Brief Course in the History of Russia from Ancient Times to early XXI century author Kerov Valery Vsevolodovich

1. The origin and settlement of the Slavs The origin of the Eastern Slavs is a complex scientific problem, the study of which is difficult due to the lack of reliable and complete written evidence about the area of ​​their settlement, economic life, way of life and customs. First

From the book History of Ukraine. South Russian lands from the first Kyiv princes to Joseph Stalin author Allen William Edward David

The origin of the Slavs From prehistoric times to the XV century. nomads played a decisive role in the history of southern Russia, and in Central Europe their brutal devastating raids influenced the course of European history in the 5th-13th centuries. Many problems of modern Europe originated in those

From the book History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century author Sakharov Andrey Nikolaevich

§ 1. The origin of the Slavs In our time, the Eastern Slavs (Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians) make up about 85% of the population of Russia, 96% of Ukraine and 98% of Belarus. Even in Kazakhstan, they include about half of the population of the republic. However, this situation has been

From the book What was before Rurik author Pleshanov-Ostoya A.V.

The origin of the Slavs There are many hypotheses about the origin of the Slavs. Someone refers them to the Scythians and Sarmatians, who came from Central Asia, someone to the Aryans, Germans, others even identify them with the Celts. In general, all hypotheses of the origin of the Slavs can be divided into

There is an opinion everywhere that the real history of the Slavs begins with the Christianization of Rus'.

It turns out that before this event, the Slavs did not seem to exist, because, one way or another, a person, multiplying, settling in the territory, leaves behind a trace in the form of a system of beliefs, writing, language, rules governing the relationship of fellow tribesmen, architectural buildings, rituals, legends and legends.

Based on the same modern history, writing and writing came to the Slavs from Greece, law - from Rome, religion - from Judea.

Raising the Slavic theme, the first thing Slavism is associated with is paganism. But let me draw your attention to the essence of this word: "language" means people, "nick" - none, unknown, i.e. a pagan is a representative of an alien, unfamiliar faith.

Can we be Gentiles and Gentiles for ourselves?

The Christian religion came from Israel, just as history came from the Jewish Torah. Christianity has existed on Earth for only 2000 years, in Rus' - 1000. Considering these dates from the position of the Universe, they seem insignificant, because. the ancient knowledge of any nation goes far beyond these figures.

It is strange to think that everything that was long before Christianity was accumulated, collected, passed down from generation to generation - heresy and delusions. It turns out that all people on Earth have lived for centuries in illusion, self-deception and delusion.

Returning to the Slavs, how then could they create so many beautiful works of art: literature, architecture, architecture, painting, weaving, etc., if they were ignorant forest dwellers?

Raising the richest Slavic-Aryan Heritage, the Slavs appeared on Earth long before the representatives of other peoples. Previously, the term "earth" had the same meaning as the Greek name "planet", i.e. celestial object moving in its orbit around the sun.

Our Earth had the name Midgard, where "mid" or "middle" means middle, "gard" - hail, city, i.e. the middle world (remember the shamanic idea of ​​the structure of the Universe, where our Earth was connected with the middle world).

About 460,500 years ago our ancestors landed at the north pole of Midgard-Earth. Since that period, our planet has undergone significant changes, both climatic and geographical.

P class="-11"> In those distant times, the North Pole was a continent rich in flora and fauna, Buyan Island, on which lush vegetation grew, which our ancestors settled in.

The Slavic Kin consisted of representatives of four peoples: Da'Aryans, Kh'Aryans, Rasenov and Svyatorus.

The Da'Aryans were the first to arrive on Midgard-Earth. They came from the star system of the constellation Zimun or Ursa Minor, the land of Rai. The color of their eyes - gray, silver - corresponded to the sun of their system, which had the name Tara.

They called the northern mainland, where they settled, Daaria. Then followed the Kh'Aryans. Their homeland is the constellation Orion, the land of Troar, the sun - Rada - is green, which is imprinted in the color of their eyes.

Then the Svyatoruss arrived - blue-eyed Slavs from the constellation Mokosh or Ursa Major, who called themselves Svaga. Later, brown-eyed Rasen appeared from the constellation of the Race and the land of Ingard, the Dazhdbog-Sun system or the modern Beta Leo.

If we talk about the peoples belonging to the four Great Slavic-Aryan Clans, then the Siberian Russians, northwestern Germans, Danes, Dutch, Latvians, Lithuanians, Estonians, etc. went from the Da'Aryans.

The Eastern and Pomeranian Rus, Scandinavians, Anglo-Saxons, Normans (or Muromets), Gauls, Belovodsky Rusichs originated from the Clan Kh`Aryans.

The genus Svyatorus - blue-eyed Slavs - is represented by northern Russians, Belarusians, Polans, Poles, East Prussians, Serbs, Croats, Macedonians, Scots, Irish, Asses from Iria, i.e. Assyrians.

The grandchildren of Dazhdbozhya, Raseny are the western Ross, the Etruscans (the ethnic group is Russian or, as the Greeks called them, these Russians), Moldavians, Italians, Franks, Thracians, Goths, Albanians, Avars, etc.

The ancestral home of our ancestors is Hyperborea (Boreas - the north wind, hyper - strong) or Daaria (from the first Slavic clan of the Da`Aryans who settled the Earth) - the northern mainland of Midgard-Earth.

Here was the source of ancient Vedic knowledge, the grains of which are now scattered throughout the Earth among various peoples.

But our ancestors had to sacrifice their homeland for the sake of saving Midgard-Earth. In those distant times, the Earth had 3 satellites: the Moon Lelya with a circulation period of 7 days, Fattu - 13 days and the Month - 29.5 days.

The Dark Forces from the man-made galaxy of 10,000 planets (darkness corresponds to 10,000), or, as they also call it, the Hellish World (that is, the lands there are not yet fully developed, they are only “baked”) have chosen Lelya for themselves, deployed their forces on it and directed their blow to Midgard-Earth.

Our ancestor and the Highest God, Tarkh, the son of God Perun, saved the Earth, defeating Lelya and destroying the kingdom of Kashcheev. Hence the custom of breaking eggs at Easter, which symbolizes the victory of Tarkh Perunovich over Kashchei, a mortal demon who found his death in an egg (a prototype of the Moon).

This event happened 111,814 years ago and became a new starting point for the chronology from the Great Migration. So the waters of Lely gushed to Midgard-Earth, flooding the Northern continent. As a result, Daaria went to the bottom of the Arctic (Cold) Ocean.

This was the reason for the Great Migration of the Slavic clans from Daria to Rasiya along the isthmus to the lands lying to the south (the remains of the isthmus were preserved in the form of the islands of Novaya Zemlya).

The Great Migration lasted 16 years. Thus, 16 became a sacred number for the Slavs. The Slavic Svarog circle or zodiac, consisting of 16 Heavenly Halls, is based on it.

16 years is the full part of the circle of Years in 144 years, consisting of 16 years passing through 9 elements, where the last 16 years were considered sacred.

Gradually, our ancestors settled the territory from the mountains of Ripey, covered with burdock, or Ural, which means lying near the Sun: U Ra (Sun, Light, Radiance) L (bed), to Altai and the Lena River, where Al or Alnost is the highest structure, hence the reality - a repetition, a reflection of Alness; tai - peak, i.e. Altai is both mountains, which contain the richest deposits of mines, and a focus of energy, a place of Power. From Tibet to the Indian Ocean in the south (Iran), later southwest (India).

106,786 years ago, our ancestors rebuilt Asgard (the city of Ases) at the confluence of Iria and Omi, erecting Alatyr-Gora - a temple complex 1000 Arshin high (over 700 m), consisting of four Temples (Temples) of a pyramidal shape, located one above the other .

And so the Holy Race settled: the Clans of Ases - Gods living on Earth, the Countries of Ases throughout the territory of Midgard-Earth, multiplied and became the Great Family, forming the country of Ases - Asia, in modern Asia, having built the state of Aryans - Great Tartaria.

They themselves called their country Belovodie from the name of the river Iriy, on which Asgard of Iriy was built (Iriy - white, clean). Siberia is the northern part of the country, i.e. Northern Truly Divine Iriy).

Later, the Clans of the Great Race, driven by the harsh Daariyan wind, began to move further south, settling on different continents. Prince Skand settled the northern part of Venya.

Later, this territory became known as Skando (i) nav (i) ya, because, dying, the prince said that his Spirit after death would protect this Earth (navya is the soul of the deceased, living in the world of Navi, unlike the world of Reveal) .

The Vanir clans settled in Transcaucasia, then, due to drought, they moved south of Scandinavia, to the territory of the modern Netherlands. In memory of their Ancestors, the inhabitants of the Netherlands keep the prefix Van in their surnames (Van Gogh, Van Beethoven, etc.).

The clans of God Veles - the inhabitants of Scotland and Ireland, in honor of their progenitor and patron, named one of the provinces of Wales or Wels.

The Svyatorus families settled in the eastern and southern parts of Venya, as well as the Baltic states.

In the eastern part is located the country of Gardarika (a country of many cities), consisting of Novgorod Rus, Pomeranian (Latvia and Prussia), Red Rus (Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth), White Rus (Belarus), Lesser (Kievan Rus), Sredinnaya (Muscovy, Vladimir), Carpathian (Hungarians, Romanians), Silver (Serbs).

The clans of the God Perun settled Persia, the Aryans settled Arabia.

The clans of God Niya settled on the Antlan mainland and became known as Ants. There they lived together with the indigenous people with the skin of the color of Fire, to whom they passed on the secret knowledge.

Remember at least the fall of the Inca civilization, when the Indians mistook the conquistadors for the White Gods, or another fact - the patron saint of the Indians - the Flying Serpent Queyzacoatl, according to the descriptions of a white man with a beard.

Antlan (doe - inhabited territory, i.e. the country of Ants) or, as the Greeks called it - Atlantis - became a powerful civilization, where people eventually began to abuse their knowledge, as a result of which, violating the laws of nature, they brought down the moon Fatta to Earth, themselves they flooded their peninsula.

As a result of the catastrophe, the Svarog circle or the Zodiac was shifted, the axis of rotation of the Earth tilted to one side, and Zima or Marena in Slavic began to cover the Earth with its snow cloak for a third of the year. All this happened 13,016 years ago and became the starting point of the new chronology from the Great Cooling.

The Ants clans moved to the country of Ta-Kem, where they lived with people with skin of the color of Darkness, taught them sciences, crafts, agriculture, the construction of pyramidal tombs, which is why Egypt began to be called the country of man-made mountains.

The first four dynasties of the pharaohs were white, then they began to prepare elected pharaohs from the indigenous peoples.

Later there was a war between the Great Race and the Great Dragon (Chinese), as a result of which a Peace Treaty was signed in the Star Temple (observatory) between Asura (As is an earthly God, Ur is a settled territory) and Ahriman (Arim, Ahriman is a person with a darker color skin).

This event happened 7516 years ago and became the starting point of the new chronology from the creation of the World in the Star Temple.

The Slavs were called Ases - the Gods living on Earth, the children of the heavenly Gods - the Creators. They have never been slaves, "a dumb herd" without the right to choose.

The Slavs never worked (the root of the word “work” is “slave”), they never seized foreign territories by force (the Greeks called them tyrants or tyrenes for not letting their lands be seized), they worked for the good of their Family, were the owners of the results of his labor.

The Slavs sacredly honored the laws of RITA - the laws of Race and Blood, which did not allow incestuous marriages. For this, Russians are often called racists. Again, you need to look at the root in order to understand the deepest Wisdom of our Ancestors.

The globe, like a magnet, is represented by two opposite poles. White peoples inhabited the north positive pole, blacks - the south negative. All physical and energy systems of the body were tuned in accordance with the work of these poles.

Therefore, in a marriage between a white and a black, the child loses the support of the clan through both parents: +7 and -7 add up to zero. Such children are more prone to diseases, tk. deprived of full-fledged immune protection, they often become aggressor revolutionaries protesting against systems that did not accept them.

Now the Indian teaching about chakras has become widespread, according to which 7 main chakras are located in the human body along the spine line, but then the question arises: why does the energy in the head area change its signs: if Right side body has a positive charge, then the right hemisphere will have a negative one.

If energy, like an electric current, flows in a straight line, without being refracted anywhere, it cannot simply take and change its sign to the opposite.

Our ancestors said that there are 9 main chakras in the human body: 7 are located along the spine line, 2 - in the armpits, forming an energy cross.

Thus, the flow of energy is refracted in the center of the cross, changing its sign to the opposite. Jesus Christ also said that everyone carries his own cross, i.e. everyone has their own energy cross.

Now scientists are ridiculing the ideas of the ancients about the structure of the Universe, which has the shape of a disk resting on three elephants, which, in turn, stand on a turtle floating in the vast world ocean. The picture seems naive and stupid if you look at things flatly.

The Slavs, on the other hand, have always been famous for imaginative thinking, behind every word, every image, you need to look for a series of meanings. The flat disk of the Earth was associated with flat everyday thinking and dual consciousness, thinking in yes-no categories.

This world rests on three elephants: matter, as the basis of the West, the idea, the basis of the Arab East, and transcendentalism or mysticism, the basis of India, Tibet, Nepal, etc.

The tortoise is the source, the primordial knowledge from which the “elephants” draw their energy. Such a turtle is just the North for other peoples, directly connected to the Primordial Knowledge — the ocean of Infinite Knowledge and Absolute Truth (energy).

The simplest solar symbol of the Slavs is the swastika, which was widely used by Hitler, which left a negative imprint on the symbol of human structure.

On the other hand, Hitler's main goal was world domination, to achieve which he used the most powerful and advanced weapons, he took as a basis neither Egyptian hieroglyphs, nor Jewish or Arabic cabalistic signs, namely Slavic symbols.

After all, what is the Swastika - this is an image of a cross in motion, it is a harmonious number four, indicating the presence in any descendant of the Slavic-Aryan peoples of the Body that his parents endowed him with, the Soul that the Gods inhabited in this body, the Spirit - connection with the Gods and protection Ancestors and Conscience, as a measure of all human deeds.

Let us recall at least the Kupala holiday, when people bathed in the rivers (purified the body), jumped over the fire (purified the Soul), walked on coals (purified the Spirit).

The swastika also indicated the structure of the Universe, consisting of our World of Reveal, two worlds of Navi: dark Navi and light Navi, i.e. Glory, and the world of the Most High Gods - Rule.

If we turn to the Western hierarchy of worlds, it is represented by the physical world corresponding to the World of Reveal, which is washed on both sides by the astral plane corresponding to Navi, the mental one goes higher, as an analogue of Slavi. In this case, there is no question of a higher World of Rule.

From the school bench, children are told that Greek monks taught literacy to ignorant Slavs, forgetting that these same monks took the Slavic initial letter as a basis, but since it could only be understood on the images, they excluded a number of letters, changing the interpretation of the remaining ones.

Subsequently, the language became more and more simplified. The Slavs always had two prefixes without- and bes-, where without meant absence, demon - belonging to the inhabitant of the dark world, i.e., speaking immortal, it means a mortal demon, if we say immortal, it will mean a completely different thing - the absence of death .

The initial letter of the Slavs carried a huge meaning. At first glance, the same sounding word could carry a completely different meaning. So the word "world" can be interpreted in completely different ways, depending on which letter "and" will be used.

Peace through "and" meant a state without war, because. the figurative meaning of "and" is the connection of two streams. The world through "i" had a universal meaning, where the dot - denoted the Supreme God Ancestor. World through; was interpreted as a community, where two dots denoted the union of Gods and Ancestors, and so on.

Often scientists see a kind of underdevelopment in the polytheism of the Slavs. But again, superficial judgments do not give an understanding of the issue.

The Slavs consider the Great Unknown Being, whose name is Ra-M-Ha (Ra - light, radiance, M - peace, Ha - positive force), which manifested itself in New Reality, from the contemplation of this reality was illuminated by the Great Light of joy, and from this light of joy various Worlds and Universes, Gods and Ancestors, were born, direct descendants, i.e. whose children we are.

If Ramha manifested into a New Reality, then there is still some higher Old Reality, and above it, more and more.

In order to understand and cognize all this, for the Slavs, the Gods and Ancestors established the Way of Spiritual Revival and Improvement through creation, awareness of various worlds and infinities, development to the level of the Gods, because. Slavic Gods are the same people - Ases, who inhabited various Earths, creating for the benefit of the Family, who have passed the Path of Spiritual Perfection.

The images of the Slavic Gods were not and could not be photographic, they did not convey a shell, did not make a copy, but conveyed the essence of the Deity, the main grain and the Divine structure.

So Perun with a raised sword personified the protection of the Clans, Svarog with a sword point down kept the Ancient Wisdom. He is God for that and God, that he could take on various guises in the Explicit World, but His Essence remained the same.

The same superficial understanding ascribes human sacrifices to the Slavs. Western materialists, attached to the body, identifying the physical shell with a person, cannot understand that people did not burn in fire, but used fire (remember the fiery chariots) as a means of transportation to other worlds and realities.

So Slavic knowledge has a rich history and culture, the roots of that wisdom go back centuries and millennia.

We, as direct descendants of our Slavic Gods and Ancestors, have an internal key to the system of this knowledge, opening which, we open the Bright Path of Spiritual Development and Improvement, we open our eyes and hearts, we begin to see, know, live, know and understand.

All Wisdom is inside a person (Wisdom is not inside a person. Here the author is mistaken. A person is born as an animal. Further, with the right development and upbringing, he has a chance to become a “reasonable animal” and actually a person. For more on this, see the book by Academician N.V. Levashova "The Last Appeal to Humanity" . — D.B.), you just need to want to see and realize it. Our Gods are always there and ready to help at any moment, like our parents, ready to lay down their lives for their children.

Only children often do not understand this, they are looking for the Truth in other people's houses, in overseas countries. Native parents are always tolerant and kind to their children, contact them and they will always help.

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