Introduction
1. Causes, specifics, main periods of the Renaissance
2. Philosophy of humanism and religion. Reformation
3. Discoveries in science and technology
4. Art of the Renaissance
5. Theater of the Renaissance
Conclusion
List of sources used
Introduction
Renaissance - a whole cultural era in the process of transition from the Middle Ages to the new time, during which a cultural upheaval (a turning point, a shift) took place. Fundamental changes are associated with the eradication of the ancient Christian mythological worldview. Despite the origin of the term "Renaissance", strictly speaking, there was no revival of antiquity, and could not be. Man cannot return to his past. The Renaissance, using the lessons of antiquity, introduced innovations. He did not bring back to life all ancient genres, but only those that were in tune with the aspirations of his time and culture. The Renaissance combined a new reading of antiquity with a new reading of Christianity. The Renaissance brought these two fundamental principles of European culture closer together.
The term "Renaissance" (Renaissance) appeared in the 16th century. Considering the Middle Ages as a simple break in the development of the cult. Even Giordano Vasari, a painter and the first historiographer of Italian art, the author of the famous “Lives” of the most famous painters, sculptors and architects (1550), wrote about the “revival” of Italian art.
The Renaissance, a period in the history of the culture of Western and Central Europe in the 14th-16th centuries, the main content of which was the formation of a new, “earthly”, essentially secular picture of the world, radically different from the medieval one.
The Renaissance is one of the brightest periods in the history of the development of European culture.
Renaissance is a whole cultural epoch during which a cultural upheaval (a turning point, a shift) took place. Fundamental changes are associated with the eradication of the ancient Christian mythological worldview. Despite the origin of the term "Renaissance", strictly speaking, there was not and could not be a revival of antiquity. Man cannot return to his past. The Renaissance, using the lessons of antiquity, introduced innovations. He did not bring back to life all ancient genres, but only those that were in tune with the aspirations of his time and culture. The Renaissance combined a new reading of antiquity with a new reading of Christianity.
The Renaissance brought these two fundamental principles of European culture closer together.
The main goal of my research is to show the fundamental changes that have taken place in the worldview of people.
1. Causes, specifics, main periods of the Renaissance
Under the Renaissance we mean a certain ideological movement that took place in the 14th - 16th centuries. The leaders of this movement set out to revive antiquity, ancient culture, the ancient way of life. The immediate past (the Middle Ages) was perceived and evaluated by them as, in general, a period of darkness and ignorance. Of course, it was not possible to revive antiquity (in history such a thing is simply impossible), but the fruit of the activity of thinkers and artists of the Renaissance was a new worldview that reproduced antiquity in a certain way, but was precisely a new worldview. It could not but be new both because it expressed new needs and because behind the Renaissance thinkers was the Christian Middle Ages, a whole era of spiritual development, which could not be crossed out. In essence, the Renaissance worldview was a kind of syncretism of the Christian perception of the world and the ancient, pagan worldview. In the writings of Renaissance thinkers, references to ancient philosophers coexist with references to Holy Bible and church fathers.
The main contradiction of the Renaissance is the collision of the vast new with the still strong, well-established and familiar old.
Nevertheless, with all the diversity of contradictions, with all the cruelty and rudeness of morals, the Renaissance raised society to a qualitatively new level of awareness of itself, its activities and its goals.
Let's highlight the main features of this time.
1. The term "Renaissance" itself means the desire of society to understand and rethink its past, to revive its former glory and sweep away its mistakes. One of the main ideas of the Renaissance is the connection of times, the renewal of everything that antiquity did not have time to complete.
2. The Renaissance “revealed” the individuality of a person to the world and showed the way to a personal state. Until that time, the individual was perceived as a biological individual, separated from others on the basis that humanity consists of people. The term “individuality” in its modern meaning did not exist at that time, since the concept of individual, individuum denotes a human biological unit that manifests itself only as part of a collective whole. And only the Renaissance saw man in his uniqueness and ability to creative activity, only the Renaissance made significant his emotional world, passions and affects, the originality of his attitude to reality, and only in the Renaissance, the acting person becomes the main character of his time.
The Renaissance came to the idea of the god-likeness of man and derived from this the idea of the infinity of his possibilities, which was realized in the activities of the titans of the Renaissance. It also constitutes one of the main features of the Renaissance - humanism (Latin “humanus” “human”, “human”. Humanism is the recognition of the value of a person as a person, his right to free development, the affirmation of the good of a person as a criterion for assessing social relations).
3. The humanism of the Renaissance gives rise to a “clear desire for rebellion”, this period of culture is characterized by “a program of breaking with the old world in order to establish other forms of education and communication, a different society and other relationships between man and nature.” The desire for rebellion does not break with religion and the church, but creates a secular culture away from religious influence.
4. As common to the entire Renaissance in its temporal and spatial relations, one should also consider a special feeling that this era is a “golden age” in the life of mankind. “Our age is a truly golden age. He revived the free arts that had already died - grammar, poetry, oratory, painting, sculpture, architecture, music and the ancient tunes of the Orpheus harp, ”wrote one of the humanists of this time, Marsilio Ficino (1433-1499).
So, the Renaissance is a transitional stage in the history of mankind, culture, political and economic life. Three periods are distinguished in its history: the early Renaissance - Trecento (XIV century), the high Renaissance, the period of its heyday - Quattrocento (XV century) and the late Renaissance - Cinquecento (XVI century).
During the Trecento period, the first manufactories and the new forms of exploitation associated with them appear, violent clashes between the emerging working class and the young bourgeoisie break out. Free city-states flourished, city-communes (such as Florence), where there was no serfdom, and leading role they were played not by aristocrats, but by merchants and artisans. In art, this is the era of Francesco Petrarch and Giovanni Boccaccio, who created new literature, "the central figure of which is a person in all his manifestations with his complex inner life."
In the era of the Quattrocento, a fierce war flared up between supporters of the Roman papacy (Guelphs) and imperial power (Gibelins), oligarchs came to power in communal cities, brutally suppressing the performances of the “skinny people”. But at the same time, painting flourished, giving a powerful impetus to the next period - the high Renaissance. In the XV century, Leonardo da Vinci begins to work, Raphael and Michelangelo will become his successors. Interest in humanitarian knowledge (studio gumanitatis) flares up, even in churches on holidays, instead of a sermon, Dante's poems and lectures on ancient literature and philosophy were read. It was at this time that printing was invented by Johannes Gutenberg.
The most tragic was the Cinquecento period: an unprecedented flowering of art along with the most terrible upheavals of an economic, social and religious nature.
All three stages were preceded by short period eve of the Renaissance, pre-revival (second half of the 13th century) - Ducento, when anti-feudal sentiments were just taking shape and free cities appeared, and Dante and Giotto worked in art.
2. Philosophy of humanism and religion. Reformation
The term "Renaissance humanism" (or "Renaissance humanism") developed in scientific literature of the last century on the basis of concepts characteristic of this era itself - humanitas (in the sense human moral spiritual culture) and studia humanitatis - a term that meant a new set of humanitarian disciplines. This complex included, in addition to grammar and rhetoric, traditional for the medieval education system, philology and poetics, history, ethics and pedagogy.
Moral philosophy was placed at the center of the entire system of humanitarian knowledge, within which the line of secular ethics was clearly marked. It developed the problems of human dignity, based not on the nobility of origin or wealth, but on high moral qualities and the ability to self-improve, a new assessment of work, creativity, and volitional activity of the individual was given.
The passion of the Renaissance was reflected in the relationship new culture with religion and church. No matter how strong the stream of atheism was during this period, no matter how the Renaissance man rebelled against the restriction of freedom by religion, he still remained within the framework of the Christian view of nature, of its creation by God.
In any philosophical system, even very radical theorists, it was impossible to do without God. Therefore, the theory of the universe is looking for compromises: God acted as the creator of goods, but most humanists sing a hymn to the genius of man, who is considered almost equal to the genius of the creator of heavenly bodies. Thus, the path is cleared to the fact that nature will be considered God, and harmony - the beginning of nature itself.
Nevertheless, the Renaissance was Christian, although Christianity itself underwent changes, entering into relations with a new culture, which led to the Reformation and a new direction in Christianity - Protestantism. The Renaissance for the first time exposed the opposition not only between religion and scientific knowledge, but also between religion and the institution of the church.
Reformation (lat. reformatio - correction, restoration) - a mass religious and socio-political movement in Western and Central Europe of the 16th - early 17th centuries, aimed at reforming Catholic Christianity in accordance with the Bible.
The main reasons for the Reformation were the overcoming of feudal fragmentation and the emergence of centralized states, the economic crisis after the appearance of a huge amount of American gold and the invention of the amalgamation method, the ruin of banks, the dissatisfaction of various segments of the European population with the moral decay of the Catholic Church, which was accompanied by economic and political monopolization.
Almost all social strata of society participated in this movement. New economic relations demanded their own ideology. Since the main ideology for many centuries was religion, which also embraced morality, it was also necessary to find moral grounds for “honest gain” in it. The church offered such grounds to see in donations for the needs of the church. Even a thief who made such donations was considered a charitable person: “they redeemed sin ... People who honestly earned their money, but gave nothing or almost nothing to the church, were regarded by it as if they were invisible to God at all.” The sale of indulgences was based on the same principle. A person who bought himself an absolution could continue to violate religious norms.
results of the Reformation.
The results of the reform movement cannot be characterized unambiguously. On the one hand, the Christian World, which united all the peoples of Europe under the spiritual leadership of the Pope, no longer existed, just as there was no single Christian culture. The single church was replaced by a plurality of national churches, which were often dependent on secular rulers, whereas before the clergy could appeal to the pope as an arbitrator. On the other hand, national churches contributed to the growth of the national consciousness of the peoples of Europe. At the same time, the cultural and educational level of the inhabitants of Northern Europe, which had previously been, as it were, the outskirts of the Christian World, increased significantly - the need to study the Bible led to the growth of both primary educational institutions (mainly in the form of parish schools) and higher ones, which resulted in the creation of universities for the training of national churches. For some languages, writing was specially developed in order to be able to publish the Bible in them.
The proclamation of spiritual equality stimulated the development of ideas about political equality. So, in countries where the majority were Reformed, the laity had great opportunities in managing the church, and citizens in managing the state. In economic terms, the Reformation contributed to the change of old feudal economic relations to new capitalist ones. The desire for economy, for the development of industry, for the rejection of expensive entertainment (as well as expensive worship services) contributed to the accumulation of capital, which was invested in trade and production. As a result, the Protestant states began to outstrip the Catholic states in economic development. Even the very ethics of the Protestants contributed to the development of the economy.
3. Discoveries in science and technology.
The most important condition for the scale and revolutionary achievements of the science of the Renaissance was the humanistic worldview, in which the activity of mastering the world was understood as a component of the earthly destiny of man. To this must be added the revival of ancient science. A significant role in the development was played by the needs of navigation, the use of artillery, the creation of hydraulic structures, etc. The dissemination of scientific knowledge, their exchange between scientists, would have been impossible without the invention of printing.
The first advances in mathematics and astronomy date back to the middle of the 15th century. and are connected in many respects with the names of G. Peyerbach (Purbach) and I. Muller (Regiomontan). Müller created new, more advanced astronomical tables (to replace the Alfonsian tables of the 13th century) - "Ephemerides" (published in 1492), which were used in their travels by Columbus, Vasco da Gama and other navigators. A significant contribution to the development of algebra and geometry was made by the Italian mathematician of the turn of the century L. Pacioli. In the 16th century The Italians N. Tartaglia and J. Cardano discovered new ways to solve equations of the third and fourth degree.
The most important scientific event of the 16th century. was the Copernican revolution in astronomy. The Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, in his treatise On the Revolution of the Celestial Spheres (1543), rejected the prevailing geocentric Ptolemaic-Aristotelian picture of the world and not only postulated the rotation of celestial bodies around the Sun, and the Earth still around its axis, but also for the first time showed in detail (geocentrism as a conjecture was born back in Ancient Greece) how, based on such a system, one can explain - much better than before - all the data of astronomical observations. In the 16th century the new system of the world, in general, did not receive support in the scientific community. Convincing evidence of the truth of the theory of Copernicus was given only by Galileo.
Based on experience, some scientists of the 16th century (among them Leonardo, B. Varki) expressed doubts about the laws of Aristotelian mechanics, which had reigned supreme until that time, but did not offer their own solution to the problems (later Galileo would do this). The practice of using artillery contributed to the formulation and solution of new scientific problems: Tartaglia in the treatise New Science considered the issues of ballistics. The theory of levers and weights was studied by Cardano. Leonardo da Vinci was the founder of hydraulics. His theoretical research was connected with the installation of hydraulic structures, land reclamation, the construction of canals, and the improvement of locks. The English physician W. Gilbert laid the foundation for the study of electromagnetic phenomena by publishing his essay On the Magnet (1600), where he described its properties.
A critical attitude towards authorities and reliance on experience were clearly manifested in medicine and anatomy. Fleming A. Vesalius in his famous work On the structure human body(1543) described the human body in detail, relying on his numerous observations during the anatomy of corpses, criticizing Galen and other authorities. At the beginning of the 16th century along with alchemy, iatrochemistry arises - medical chemistry, which developed new medicinal preparations. One of its founders was F. von Hohenheim (Paracelsus). Rejecting the achievements of his predecessors, he, in fact, did not go far from them in theory, but as a practitioner he introduced a number of new drugs.
In the 16th century mineralogy, botany, and zoology were developed (Georg Bauer Agricola, K. Gesner, Cesalpino, Rondela, Belona), which in the Renaissance were at the stage of collecting facts. An important role in the development of these sciences was played by the reports of researchers from new countries, which contained descriptions of flora and fauna.
In the 15th century Cartography and geography were actively developed, Ptolemy's mistakes were corrected, based on medieval and modern data. In 1490 M. Behaim creates the first globe. At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. Europeans' search for a sea route to India and China, advances in cartography and geography, astronomy and shipbuilding culminated in the discovery of the coast of Central America by Columbus, who believed that he had reached India (for the first time, a continent called America appeared on Waldseemüller's map in 1507). In 1498 the Portuguese Vasco da Gama reached India by circumnavigating Africa. The idea to reach India and China by the western route was implemented by the Spanish expedition of Magellan - El Cano (1519-1522), which circled South America and made the first trip around the world (in practice, the sphericity of the Earth was proved!). In the 16th century Europeans were sure that "the world today is completely open and the whole human race is known." The great discoveries transformed geography and stimulated the development of cartography.
Renaissance science had little impact on the productive forces that developed along the path of gradual improvement of tradition. At the same time, the successes of astronomy, geography, and cartography served as the most important prerequisite for the Great Geographical Discoveries, which led to fundamental changes in world trade, to colonial expansion and a price revolution in Europe. Achievements of science of the Renaissance steel necessary condition for the genesis of classical science of modern times.
4. Art of the Renaissance
The art of the Renaissance, like other spheres of culture, is imbued with the main idea of the time - the idea of humanism.
Suffice it to recall the works of Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Raphael (1483-1520), Michelangelo (1475-1564), Titian (c. 1476/77 or 1489/90-1576), Albrecht Dürer (1471 - 1528) or poetic the works of Petrarch, Boccaccio, Torquato Tasso (1544-1595) and Dante (1265-1321), the prose of Rabelais (1494-1553), the dramaturgy of Shakespeare (1564-1616), how a huge number of characters will surround us. The variety of characters, social types, temperaments shown in this stream of art is amazing. There are practically no standards here, each character is significant, deep and can act as a phenomenon that characterizes the era as a whole. It is also noteworthy that it was during the Renaissance that art reached significant heights in conveying the state and psychology of its heroes. If antiquity most often went from the external to the internal, believing that only in a beautiful body a beautiful soul is possible, and the Middle Ages believed that only the soul is important, but not the body, then the artists of the Renaissance, in the key of the general concept of a comprehensively developed person, did not make something dominant either one.
A person is now not just described or depicted - he is evaluated based on the ideals of his time. His feelings, peculiarities of experiences become significant. Therefore, a lot of space in art is occupied by the feeling of love, which most clearly demonstrates the uniqueness and significance of a person.
The poetry of the Renaissance produces a new style- dolce slil Nuova ("sweet new style"), where the tongue new form versification - a sonnet - love itself speaks.
Another merit of Renaissance poetry was the creation of a new literary language, not related to Latin.
Realism as a method of depicting life becomes an indispensable attribute of Renaissance art. Less and less often, the authors resort to allegories (although they exist in many works), they are interested in reality in all its richness and diversity. New genres appear - landscape and still life in painting and graphics.
5. Renaissance theater
Theatricality, the theater appear in life-creation and creativity in the Renaissance as principles and representation in all forms of life and arts, before acquiring in full development the form of theater in the form of drama, staging and building, where characters and spectators are combined, merging in their imagination into action on the stage of being. This is the height of the Renaissance classics.
Performances of mysteries in churches and squares are accompanied by an increase in interest in the ancient theater, primarily in Terence and Plautus, who were known back in the Middle Ages, however, only from manuscripts. In the 15th century, printed editions of the comedies by Terentius and Plautus appeared in Latin. In the productions of plays in Latin at the courts, amateurs from the nobility play. Then comes the time for translations, most importantly, the first learned comedies, in which almost everyone takes part. famous poets, writers, humanists from Angelo Poliziano, who, they say, at the age of seventeen composed "The Tale of Orpheus" in Italian, to Machiavelli and Trissino.
Theatrical performances become part of the court festivities in Ferrara, in Mantua, and professional troupes of actors perform in the squares during carnivals in Venice or Florence with the birth of commedia dell'arte, which is associated with the name of the actor and playwright Angelo Beolco (1502-1542).
In the 16th century in Florence, after a series of internecine wars, the monarchical form of government of the Medici was established, who acquired the special titles of the Grand Dukes of Tuscany, so all kinds of theatrical festivities - tournaments, triumphs, weddings - are accompanied by theatrical performances in an already specially built hall in the Uffizi, conceived by Giorgio Vasari and completed by Bernardo Buontalenti (1536-1608), architect, organizer of court festivities and director of performances.
Both the festivities and the performance of plays on the stage of the theater were accompanied by interludes, with the participation of musicians, dancers and singers. It was from the interludes, in which music, dance and singing were combined, with the designation of a single plot, that the opera was born. This happened in 1600 in Florence during the performances of Jacopo Peri's Eurydice at Palazzo Pitti and Caccini's The Abduction of Cephalus at the Uffizi, as evidenced, in the presence of 300 gentlemen and 800 ladies. The scenery and costumes of Buontalenti, all kinds of lighting effects, in addition to music and singing, caused, they say, delight among the audience. Still would.
Researchers trace in the work of Buontalenti, as well as in the development of art in Italy in general, the transition from mannerism to baroque, which marks the decline of the Renaissance. But if the baroque in architecture, sculpture, painting in Italy, after the rise of the Renaissance classics, really means the end of the Renaissance, then in Spain and England it is the baroque that acts as the aesthetics of the Renaissance and the basis for the highest rise of the Renaissance theater.
Conclusion
The Renaissance as a period of development of European culture combined two powerful trends: ancient and Christian. Almost all thinkers of that time, starting from the ancient tradition, singled out as the main actor in the picture of the human world. The new picture of the world in the Renaissance was controversial. On the one hand, humanists saw and glorified the greatness of man, his ability to create and understand the world. On the other hand, the ideas of Copernicus and especially Giordano Bruno regarding the plurality of worlds destroyed the joyful and optimistic view of humanism. These contradictions were reflected not only in art, but also in religious differences. Humanism is indeed the main pathos of the Renaissance. It should be noted that the humanists themselves were few in number, and only their diverse titanic activity in all areas of culture was so significant that it formed a powerful cultural value.
The Renaissance opened to mankind the most desirable of all areas of its existence - the sphere of freedom: in the field of knowledge of the world, in the field of social and economic relations, in the field of human self-consciousness.
The Renaissance gave birth to titans in all spheres of activity - the humanistic principle was so significant, inspiring the outstanding people of their time to deeds, the fate of which was eternity.
List of sources used
1. Alferov A.A. Culture of the Renaissance: a look at history // Philosophy in the space of culture: Russia and the West. Series "East - West - Russia". Rostov-on-Don, 2001.
2. Bystrova A. N. World of Culture (Fundamentals of Cultural Studies). Tutorial. 2nd edition, corrected and enlarged. - M .: Fedor Konyukhov Publishing House; Novosibirsk: YuKEA Publishing House LLC, 2002.- 712 p.
3. Bystrova A. N. The world of culture (Fundamentals of cultural studies). Tutorial. 2nd edition, corrected and enlarged. - M .: Fedor Konyukhov Publishing House; Novosibirsk: YuKEA Publishing House LLC, 2002.- 712 p.
4. http://ru.wikipedia.org Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia
5. Bystrova A. N. The world of culture (Fundamentals of cultural studies). Tutorial. 2nd edition, corrected and enlarged. - M .: Fedor Konyukhov Publishing House; Novosibirsk: YuKEA Publishing House LLC, 2002.- 712 p.
6. http://ru.wikipedia.org Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia
7. http://slovari.yandex.ru/dict/krugosvet/article/2/20/1012239.htm THE AGE OF THE RENAISSANCE – Yandex. Dictionaries
8. Bystrova A. N. World of Culture (Fundamentals of Cultural Studies). Tutorial. 2nd edition, corrected and enlarged. - M .: Fedor Konyukhov Publishing House; Novosibirsk: YuKEA Publishing House LLC, 2002.- 712 p.
9. http://www.renclassic.ru/Ru/34/611/ Theater of the Renaissance/ Renaissance
Essay on the topic “Renaissance culture” updated: November 13, 2018 by: Scientific Articles.Ru
The World of Artistic Culture of the Renaissance
Goals: characterize the trends in the development of European art in the 16th-17th centuries; to determine the similarities and differences in the creative method of the creators of the art of the High Renaissance; to form and develop the ability to work with various historical sources, to use them in the preparation of messages and presentations.
Planned results: get acquainted with the cultural achievements of the Renaissance; to form an idea of the works of art of the studied era; evaluate the influence of the ideas of humanists on the work of cultural figures of the Renaissance; give detailed characteristics of historical personalities; learn to justify their judgments; work with additional sources of information, create presentations; to develop interdisciplinary connections with the course of literature, world art culture.
Relationship , values , internal settings: evaluate the activities of the creators of art of the Renaissance, moral values by which they were guided; to express their attitude to the works of art of the Renaissance.
Equipment: map "Europe in the 16th-17th centuries", multimedia equipment, portraits of cultural figures of the Renaissance, reproductions of paintings, a package with test tasks.
Lesson type: general methodological lesson.
During the classes
Organizing time
Updating of basic knowledge
Messages from students about the life and views of the humanists of the New Age.
(Collective discussion of messages. Completion of test tasks.)
Erasmus of Rotterdam belongs to Peru writing:
"Praise of wisdom" 3) "Praise of fools"
"Praise of Stupidity" 4) "Praise of Fools"
F. Rabelais 3) M. Montaigne
T. More 4) J. Morelli
The novel "Gargantua and Pantagruel" wrote:
M. Cervantes 3) T. More
M. Montaigne 4) F. Rabelais
Literal translation of the word "utopia":
best place 3) land of the future
new place 4) a place that doesn't exist
The painting of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican was commissioned by:
Michelangelo
Leonardo da Vinci
Raphael
Hans Holbein the Younger
The Lord Chancellor of England was:
Erasmus of Rotterdam 3) F. Rabelais
T. More 4) M. Montaigne
The term "utopia" was introduced by:
T. More 3) F. Campanella
F. Rabelais 4) N. Machiavelli
Thomas More lived in:
Germany 3) Netherlands
France 4) England
(Checking the execution of tasks.)
Motivational-target stage
XVI-XVII centuries were the era of humanism. The ideals of humanist scientists were also reflected in the works of artistic culture of the Renaissance. This period was called the era of the titans. What contribution did the creators of the Renaissance make to world artistic culture? We will find out in our lesson. Theme of the lesson: "The world of artistic culture of the Renaissance." Lesson plan
Age of the Titans.
Northern Renaissance. "Male Painter".
Leonardo da Vinci from Germany.
On the way to immortality Work on the topic of the lesson
"What a miracle of nature is man!"
Presentation of students about the cultural figures of the Renaissance (W. Shakespeare and M. Cervantes).
Working from § 8-9 of the textbook (p. 75-77), complete the table.
A country
Artworks
The content of creativity
William
Shakespeare
(1564-1616)
England
Romeo and Juliet, Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, etc.
Shakespeare's comedies amaze with their liveliness and sparkling wit. There are many beautiful, wise and proud people in his tragedies. Heroes love and suffer, make mistakes, get disappointed, fight for their happiness and most often lose in this struggle.
Miguel
Cervantes
(1547-1616)
Ispa
nia
"Don Quixote"
Behind the outwardly ridiculous deeds of the insane Don Quixote - wisdom, nobility and humanity; the last knight of good in a world of injustice helps people become a little better
Age of the Titans
Leonardo da Vinci
A real monument to what Leonardo is as an artist, as a scientist, as an inventor, as an engineer, are his notes. These notes contain a huge number of sketches, drawings, sketches, they contain an inexhaustible supply of scientific ideas and technical ideas.
It can be said without exaggeration that there is not a single branch of science in which Leonardo would not have outlined new paths. His searching mind penetrated everywhere. In all branches of science, he made attempts to turn on a new road what had been done before him. But humanity took advantage of a minimal share of what Leonardo thought out, because everything that he wrote remained buried in his notes.
His literary heritage, in the form of a huge number of codices and folios, passed after his death to his student Francesco Melzi, who selected from Leonardo's writing part of what related to painting, and made from them the book that is now known under the title " Treatises on painting. After the death of Francesco, the precious Leonardo folios lay abandoned for a long time in the attic of the very Villa Vaprio, where Leonardo spent so much time in 1506-1512. happy days. Then they were plundered. For centuries, these manuscripts, whole codes and individual sheets, walked around the world. Now they are concentrated in different European storage facilities. Some of them have already been published, and all of them are carefully studied. But while they were under wraps, scientific thought continued to work, and most of the discoveries and inventions of Leonardo glorified other scientists.
Only a small part of his inheritance turned out to be a direct contribution to science, which accidentally fell into the hands of knowledgeable people in the years following his death. Vesalius knew the anatomical records of Leonardo, if not in full, then some of them. Similarly, the famous mathematician Girolamo Cardano was able to take advantage of some of Leonardo's mathematical ideas.
Leonardo denied any kind of authority. He completely rejected the religious criteria that at that time still dominated the scientific field. He insisted that every scientific position must be verified by experience, and this was his main methodological thesis. Experience in his eyes was the only decisive test of scientific truth. Therefore, science rightfully honors in Leonardo not only one of the greatest painters, but also one of the first pioneers of true scientific methods.
(Jivelegov A. "Leonardo da Vinci")
About Michelangelo Buonarotti's David
Michelangelo fashioned a wax model, planning to depict in it as a palace emblem the young David with a sling in his hand, so that, just as David defended his people and ruled them fairly, the rulers of this city [Florence! it was courageously defended and ruled justly... The marble was already spoiled and mutilated by the master Simone, and in some places it was not enough for Michelangelo to do what he had in mind. On the surface of the marble, he had to leave the first cuts of the master Simone, so that even now some of them are visible, and, of course, Michelangelo performed a real miracle, reviving what was dead.
Meanwhile, it happened that Pier Soderini, looking up at the statue, which he liked very much, said to Michelangelo, who at that time was trimming it here and there, that, in his opinion, her nose was large: Michelangelo, noticing that the gonfalonier was standing under the most gigantic and the point of view deceived him, climbed, to please him, on the scaffolding at the shoulders of the statue and, prying with a chisel, which he held in his left hand, a little marble dust from the platform of the scaffolding, he began to gradually shower the dust down, working as if with other chisels, but without touching the nose. Then, bending down to the Gonfaloniere, who was watching him, he said: "Come on, look at him now." "Now I like it more," said the gonfaloniere, "you brought it to life." Michelangelo then descended from the bridge, laughing at him to himself and pitying people who, wanting to show themselves as experts, say things that they themselves do not understand. When the statue was finally installed, he opened it, and truly a creation, it overshadowed all known statues, new and ancient, whether Greek or Roman ... Michelangelo finished it with such proportion and beauty, with such good quality.
About the painting of the Sistine Chapel
When the work was brought to halfway, the pope [Julius II], who had climbed the ladders more than once with the help of Michelangelo to look at it, demanded that it be opened, since he was by nature hasty and impatient and could not wait, when it is completed, that is, as they say, the last stroke of the brush.
And, as soon as it was opened, all of Rome gathered to look at it, and first of all the pope, who could not wait for the dust to settle after the removal of the scaffolding. Seeing her, Raphael of Urbinsky, who imitated very excellently, immediately changed his manner and immediately wrote, in order to show what he was capable of, the prophets and sibyls in Santa Maria della Pace; then Bramante tried to ensure that the second half the pope handed over the chapels to Raphael ... But the pope, who was becoming more and more convinced of Michelangelo's abilities every day, wished him to continue his work; for, seeing the work open, he reasoned that the second half could have come out even better with Michelangelo: and indeed, he brought the work to perfection in twenty months alone, even without the help of those who would grind his paints. Nevertheless, Michelangelo sometimes had to complain about how his dad hurried him with importunate requests when he would finish, not allowing him to finish in his own way, as he wanted. And to one of the numerous requests, he once answered that the end would be when he himself was satisfied with his art. [Michelangelo] had to write with his head thrown up, and he spoiled his eyesight so much that for several months he could not read what was written and look at drawings ... After all, lighting up every day more and more with the desire to create, accumulating and improving what was created, he did not notice fatigue and didn't care about comfort.
(Vasari J. "Lives of the most famous painters, sculptors, and architects")
"Sistine Madonna" by Raphael
The "Sistine Madonna" was commissioned by Raphael as an altarpiece for the chapel of the monastery of Saint Sixtus in Piacenza. This is the most famous painting by Raphael. The artist created it in 1515-1519. It seems that the curtain has just parted and a heavenly vision has opened up to the eyes of believers - the Virgin Mary lightly stepping on a cloud with baby Jesus in her arms. Measure reigns in the picture. Balance and harmony. It is distinguished by smooth and rounded lines, soft and melodic pattern, richness and juiciness of color. The Madonna herself exudes energy and movement. With this work, Raphael created the most sublime and poetic image Madonnas in Renaissance Art. She goes to people, young and majestic, holding something anxious in her soul; the wind blows the child's hair, and his eyes look at us, at the world with such great power and with such illumination, as if he sees both his own destiny and the destiny of the entire human race. Her gaze, directed through the viewer, is full of disturbing foresight of the tragic fate of her son. The Madonna's face is the embodiment of the ancient ideal of beauty combined with the spirituality of the Christian ideal. This is not reality, but a spectacle. No wonder the artist himself parted a heavy curtain in front of the audience in the picture. A spectacle that transforms reality in the grandeur of things, wisdom and beauty, a spectacle that elevates the soul with its absolute harmony, conquers and ennobles us.
Enthusiastic lines of such different writers and critics as V.A. Zhukovsky, V.G. Belinsky, N.P. Ogarev. Two great Russian writers, L.N. Tolstoy and F.M. Dostoevsky, had reproductions of the "Sistine Madonna" in their offices. “One picture I wanted to be forever a spectator ...” - Pushkin said about her. Dostoevsky saw in the Sistine Madonna the highest measure of human nobility, the highest manifestation of human genius.
DoerA country
Artworks
The content of creativity
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)
Italy
"Madonna Litta", "Gioconda", "Last Supper", etc.
Leonardo was a brilliant painter and an astute researcher. Long-term experiments taught him to depict the volume with the finest shades, the play of light. He was able to show the world, inaccessible to the imagination of a mere mortal
Doer
A country
Artworks
The content of creativity
Mikel
angelo
Buonarroti
(1475-1564)
Italy
"David", "Moses", "Pieta", the painting of the Sistine Chapel, the dome of St. Peter's Church in Rome IT. d.
He considered sculpture "the first of the arts", best of all glorifying a person, his beauty. "David" was supposed to remind the authorities of the just administration and courageous defense of the city. The painting on the dome of the Sistine Chapel represents several scenes from the Book of Genesis
Raphael
Santi
(1483-1520)
Italy
"Madonna Co-
unstable",
"Sistine
madonna,
"Athenian
school”, etc.
The world in the paintings of Raphael looks perfect and beautiful, harmonious and calm.
Northern Renaissance. "Male Painter"
Presentation of students about the cultural figures of the Renaissance (Peter Brueghel the Elder).
DoerA country
Artworks
The content of creativity
Pieter Brueghel the Elder (Peasant) (between 1525 and 1530-1569)
Nieder
lands
"Peasant Dance", a series of "Seasons" ("Harvest", "Return of the hunters")
Nicknamed Muzhitsky for his love of depicting commoners and folk scenes. In the awkward movements and clumsy figures of the characters of Brueghel the Elder, their rustic faces, one can guess the strength and power of the people
4. Leonardo da Vinci from Germany
Presentation of students about the cultural figures of the Renaissance (Albrecht Dürer).
- Working with§ 8-9 of the textbook (p. 83-85), fill in the table.
Doer
A country
Artworks
The content of creativity
Albrecht
Durer
(1471-1528)
germa
nia
Self-portrait, Apocalypse series
Approved a humanistic understanding of the individual, self-esteem, the desire to see in artists not artisans, but thinkers
Working with § 8-9 of the textbook (p. 81-83), complete the table On the way to immortality
Approximate content of the answer
As in painting and sculpture, in music, works began to appeal to human feelings. Secular works are widely developed and disseminated. The rules of good manners prescribed young people from wealthy families to be able to play musical instruments.
Painters of Truth
Presentation of students about the cultural figures of the Renaissance (Hans Holbein the Younger, Rembrandt, Velazquez).
Working from § 8-9 of the textbook (pp. 87-90), complete the table.
A country
Artworks
The content of creativity
Hans
Holbein
Jr
(1497-1543)
germa
nia
Portraits of HeinrichVIII, Erasmus of Rotterdam, illustrations for "In Praise of Stupidity"
Behind the impenetrability and balance of the images of people, the individuality, complexity and inconsistency of human nature clearly emerge.
Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn (1606-1669)
Nieder
lands
"Return prodigal son”, “Portrait of an old man in red”, etc.
Rembrandt tried to convey on the canvas the state of mind of a person, skillfully noticed features, characteristic gestures and poses.
Diego
Velasquez
(1599-1660)
Ispa
nia
portraits
Spanish
aristocracy,
"Breakfast",
"Spinners"
The artist accurately reproduces the details of clothing, the postures of the court nobility, the character of his characters. Paintings dedicated to the common people reflect the nobility of workers
Consolidation of the studied material
Let's check how well you learned the new material.
Name the literary works of the early modern period.("Romeo and Juliet", "Hamlet", "Othello", "King Lear", "Don Quixote » and etc.)
Why is the Renaissance called the Age of the Titans? ( Nature generously endowed many artists of this period with universal talents.)
What was Lorenzo the Magnificent known for? (Lorenzo the Magnificent composed cheerful dance melodies for folk festivals. Why did Pieter Brueghel the Elder get the nickname "Peasant Painter"? (For love of portraying commoners and folk scenes.)
Summing up the lesson
The Renaissance made a huge contribution to world artistic culture. The works of the great masters of literature, painting, sculpture and music have become a role model and a source for the creativity of future generations. They constitute the treasury of mankind.
The history of the Renaissance begins in Still this period is called the Renaissance. The Renaissance changed into culture and became the forerunner of the culture of the New Age. And the Renaissance ended in the XVI-XVII centuries, since in each state it has its own start and end date.
Some general information
Representatives of the Renaissance are Francesco Petrarca and Giovanni Boccaccio. They became the first poets who began to express lofty images and thoughts in a frank, common language. This innovation was received with a bang and spread to other countries.
Renaissance and art
The features of the Renaissance is that the human body has become the main source of inspiration and the subject of research for the artists of this time. Thus, emphasis was placed on the similarity of sculpture and painting with reality. The main features of the art of the Renaissance period include radiance, refined brushwork, the play of shadow and light, thoroughness in the process of work and complex compositions. For Renaissance artists, images from the Bible and myths were the main ones.
In resemblance real person with his image on this or that canvas was so close that the fictional character seemed alive. This cannot be said about the art of the 20th century.
The Renaissance (its main trends are briefly outlined above) perceived the human body as an endless beginning. Scientists and artists regularly improved their skills and knowledge by studying the bodies of individuals. At that time, the prevailing opinion was that man was created in the likeness and image of God. This statement reflected physical perfection. The main and important objects of Renaissance art were the gods.
Nature and beauty of the human body
Renaissance art paid great attention to nature. A characteristic element of the landscapes was a varied and lush vegetation. The skies of a blue-blue hue, which were pierced by the sun's rays that penetrated the clouds of white, were a magnificent backdrop for the soaring creatures. Renaissance art revered the beauty of the human body. This feature was manifested in the refined elements of the muscles and body. Difficult poses, facial expressions and gestures, a well-coordinated and clear color palette are characteristic of the work of sculptors and sculptors of the Renaissance period. These include Titian, Leonardo da Vinci, Rembrandt and others.
heading of spirituality. 9.3 Revival chronologically divided into 4 stages: 1) Proto-Renaissance(Pre-revival) - XIII century. (200th years - ducento) and XIV century. (300th years - trecento); 2) Early revival - 15th century (quattrocento); 3) high revival - 80s 15th century - 30s 16th century (cinquicento); 4) Late revival until the end of the 16th century
At the end of the XIV - beginning of the XV centuries. in Europe, namely Italy, an early bourgeois culture began to take shape, which was called the culture of the Renaissance (Renaissance). The term "Renaissance" indicated the connection of the new culture with antiquity. The Renaissance was characterized by many very significant changes in the mentality of people compared to the period of the Middle Ages. With the destruction of the old feudal-religious ideas and the creation of a new value system that corresponded to the emerging bourgeois era, anthropocentrism was also associated. Man is declared the center of the universe, understood as part of nature and its most perfect creation. Man as a measure of all things, as a heroic, independent, comprehensively developed personality, as a creative force in the struggle against nature and the oppression of church-feudal coercion. This leitmotif is vividly reflected in all branches of art.
At the origins of the Renaissance (“Early Renaissance”) in Italy was the great Dante Alighieri, the author of the Comedy, which the descendants, expressing their admiration, called the “Divine Comedy”. The sonnets of Francesca Petrarch (1304-1374) on the life and death of the Madonna Laura received worldwide fame. A follower of Petrarch is Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375), the author of The Decameron, a collection of realistic short stories united by a common humanistic ideal and representing a single whole. The famous poets of the Renaissance created the Italian literary language. During their lifetime, their works became widely known not only in Italy, but also far beyond its borders, and entered the treasury of world literature.
The Renaissance is characterized by the cult of beauty, especially the beauty of man. Italian painting, which for a while becomes the leading art form, depicts beautiful, perfect people. The painting of the Early Renaissance is represented by the work of Botticelli (1445-1510), Giotto (1266-1337), Masaccio (1401-1428). One of the most famous sculptors of that time was Donatello (1386-1466), the author of a number of realistic works of the portrait type, for the first time after antiquity, he again presented a naked body in sculpture. The largest architect of the Early Renaissance is Brunelleschi (1377-1446). He sought to combine elements of ancient Roman and gothic styles, built temples, palaces, chapels.
For changing Early Renaissance came High Renaissance- the time of the highest flowering of the humanistic culture of Italy. It was then that ideas about the honor and dignity of man, his high destiny on Earth were expressed with the greatest fullness and force. The titans of the High Renaissance were Leonardo da Vinci (1456-1519), Rafael Santi (1483-1520), Michelangelo Buonarotti (1475-1564).
The humanist movement is recognized as a pan-European phenomenon. In the XV century. humanism goes beyond the borders of Italy and is rapidly spreading throughout all Western European countries. Each country had its own characteristics in the formation of the Renaissance culture, its national achievements, its leaders.
In Germany the ideas of humanism become known in the middle of the 15th century, exerting a strong influence on university circles and the progressive intelligentsia. An outstanding representative of German humanistic literature was Johann Reuchlin (1455-1522), who sought to show the divine in man himself. He is the author of the famous satirical work "Letters of dark people", in which a string of ignorant, dark people is displayed - masters and bachelors, who, by the way, have academic degrees. During the Reformation, the talented poet Hans Sachs (1494-1576) stood out, who wrote many edifying fables, songs, schwanks, etc.
flourished art. The famous painter and engraver Albrecht Durer (1471-1528) worked in this area - the founder and largest representative of the German Renaissance, " northern Leonardo da Vinci", artists Hans Holbein the Younger (1497-1543), Lucas Cranach the Elder (1472-1553).
The largest representative of the Renaissance culture in Netherlands was Erasmus of Rotterdam (1496-1536). The value of the works of this great humanist and educator, including his famous "Praise of Stupidity", for the education of free-thinking, a critical attitude towards scholasticism, superstition is truly invaluable. His satirical works were widely known in Germany, France, Spain, England. Excellent in form, deep in content, they have been finding their readers for more than one century.
In England Oxford University was considered the center of humanistic ideas, where leading scientists of that time - Grosin, Linacre, Colet - lectured. The development of humanistic views in the field of social philosophy is associated with the name of Thomas More (1478-1535), the author of Utopia, who presented to the reader the ideal, in his opinion, human society. The greatest figure of the English Renaissance is William Shakespeare (1564-1616), the creator of the world-famous tragedies Hamlet, King Lear, Othello, historical plays Henry IV, Richard III, sonnets.
Renaissance in Spain was more controversial than in other European countries: many humanists here did not oppose Catholicism and the Catholic Church. Chivalric novels, as well as picaresque ones, were widely used. Fernando de Rojas, the author of the well-known tragicomedy Celestina (written c. 1492-1497), first appeared in this genre. This line was continued and developed by the great Spanish writer Miguel de Cervantes (1547-1616), the author of the immortal "Don Quixote", the satirist writer Francisco de Quevedo (1580 - 1645), who created the famous novel "The Life Story of a Rogue". The founder of the Spanish national drama is the great Lope de Vega (1562-1635), the author of more than 1800 literary works, including such as "Dog in the Manger", "Dance Teacher". Spanish painting achieved significant success. A special place in it is occupied by El Greco (1541-1614) and Diego Velasquez (1599-1660), whose work had a huge impact on the development of painting in European countries.
In France The humanist movement begins to spread only at the beginning of the 16th century. An outstanding representative of French humanism is Francois Rabelais (1494-1553), author of the satirical novel Gargantua and Pantagruel. In the center of poetic themes are romantic feelings, the glorification of love. Indicative in this regard are the sonnets of Pierre Ronsard (1524-1580), nicknamed the "prince of poets", who had a very strong influence on the development of poetry in general. The largest representative of the culture of France of the XVI century. was Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592). His main work - "Experiments" - was a reflection on philosophical, historical, ethical topics.
Thus, the Renaissance gave world culture a huge galaxy of talented scientists, figures of literature and art. Among them: philosophers and scientists - Nicholas of Cusa, Picodella Miran-dola, Bruno, Galileo, Machiavelli, Campanella, Montaigne, Müntzer, Kepler, Paracelsus, Copernicus; writers and poets - Dante, F. Petrarch, J. Boccaccio, E. Rotterdam, Rabelais, Cervantes, Shakespeare; outstanding architects, sculptors, painters - N. Pisano, Donatello, A. Rosselino, S. Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Giorgione, Titian, Michelangelo, X. Bosch, A. Durer and others.
However, in the culture of the Renaissance, along with progressive elements of humanism and realism, there are medieval remnants. Suffice it to recall the great role played by theology and scholasticism throughout the Renaissance. In order to penetrate into the essence of the culture and art of this era, one must clearly imagine the contradictions and contrasts from which it is woven, the contradictions of freedom and slavery, rationalism and magic, sensuality and asceticism.
Questions for self-examination:
What are the main features of the culture of the Renaissance. Describe the art of the Northern Renaissance. Why is D. Alighieri called "the last poet of the Middle Ages and the first poet of the Modern Age"? What is anthropocentrism? Why is Renaissance humanism based on it?
Terms:
anthropocentrism- a type of worldview, according to which a person is the center of the universe and the ultimate goal of the entire universe.
Asceticism - restriction or suppression of sensual, bodily desires to achieve concentration of the spirit, freedom from material needs, gaining supernatural abilities.
Humanism - a set of ideas and views that affirm the value of a person, regardless of his social status, and the right of the individual to the free development of his creative powers.
Madonna- the name of the Mother of God among Catholics and her pictorial or sculptural image.
Values- collectively and individually developed definitions of the objects of the world, aimed at identifying their cultural significance for a person and society.
Introduction
The Renaissance is one of the brightest periods in the history of the development of European culture.
Renaissance - a whole cultural era in the process of transition from the Middle Ages to the new time, during which a cultural upheaval (a turning point, a shift) took place. Fundamental changes are associated with the eradication of the ancient Christian mythological worldview. Despite the origin of the term "Renaissance", strictly speaking, there was not and could not be a revival of antiquity. Man cannot return to his past. The Renaissance, using the lessons of antiquity, introduced innovations. He did not bring back to life all ancient genres, but only those that were in tune with the aspirations of his time and culture. The Renaissance combined a new reading of antiquity with a new reading of Christianity. The Renaissance brought these two fundamental principles of European culture closer together.
Origins of the Renaissance
The concept of "Renaissance" is multifaceted. Those who argued about it did not come to a common opinion. Some consider it "paganism", "anti-Christianity", while others, on the contrary, see Christian-Catholic elements in it, looking for its roots in Christian culture. The attitude to this problem reveals the worldview of the researchers themselves. Anti-Christian meaning in the culture of the Renaissance is invested by those who identify Christianity with asceticism and world-denial.
Among the definitions of the cultural phenomenon of the Renaissance, there is no universally recognized one. Art critics, historians, thinkers, writers offer their explanations for this phenomenon, paying attention to various signs. If we group many of the most common features, we can understand the cultural meaning of the Renaissance as:
The flourishing of culture;
Revolution in culture;
Transitional cultural stage;
Restoration of antiquity.
Each of these signs can manifest itself independently of the Renaissance, but only their complex forms a qualitatively new stage of culture. European Renaissance - a time of powerful cultural flourishing and restoration of many cultural traditions of Greco-Roman antiquity; decisive cultural restructuring and transition to a new time in history European civilization.
The heyday is characterized by the increased energy of cultural activity, the creation and implementation of new incentives for cultural creativity. In this sense, the Renaissance can be compared in the history of world culture with the "Greek miracle" of the 8th-5th centuries. BC. The comparison is based on:
The special intensity of cultural life, the existence of many of its centers;
Variety of manifestations of creativity, creative freedom;
Combination of vitality and aesthetics;
Excess spiritual energy;
An amazing concentration on a small space-time interval of great people, universally gifted, who have chosen new ways of creativity. The names of Petrarch, Boccaccio, Brunelleschi, Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo can be proclaimed symbols of Renaissance culture.
BASICS OF THE REVIVAL
CULTURES
The main thing in the Renaissance is the promotion and establishment of the human personality in culture and society, which results in various forms of revivalist anthropocentrism.
It is in it that the formation of the foundations of the New European
feelings of a personality - an autonomous individualistic personality, conscious of its own value, active and in need of freedom. From this moment on, the human personality, and not the world, not the whole, for the first time becomes the starting point for the formation of a system for perceiving the world. This grandiose turning point in culture just happens in the Renaissance - a new way of worldview is being formed in Italy in the first half of the 15th century. There is an assertion of the human personality in culture. For the first time there was an isolation of this personality, its separation from the world.
As a result, there was a disintegration of the whole world into separate individualized things that began to close in on themselves. However, in the Renaissance this process was not yet completed, being limited mainly to man and much less spreading to other things in the world.
The result was the movement of man to the center of the material world, gradually growing and overshadowing the heavenly world, and consequently, the material world was brought to the fore and the man himself became an active creative force in it. Anthropocentrism in the first half of the 15th century. brought to the fore not just a person, but a person as an active, active principle.
In this regard, the problem of the dignity of a person was sharply posed, which is affirmed within its framework quite uncompromisingly precisely in the material plane. One of the main revival values was the concept of "glory" as a goal towards which a person should move.
As a result of all this assertion of a creative, active material principle, gradually began to emerge new image of man, his new type - "homofaber" - "man-creator", "man-creator", "man-producer", the essence of which ultimately resulted in a capacious aphoristic formula: "man is the blacksmith of his own happiness".
Humanity has its own biography: infancy, adolescence and maturity. The era, which is called the Renaissance, is most likely to be likened to the period of beginning maturity with its inherent romance, the search for individuality, the struggle against the prejudices of the past. Without the Renaissance, there would be no modern civilization. The art of the Renaissance arose on the basis of humanism (from lat.
-
"human") - a trend of social thought that originated in the 14th century in Italy, and then during the second half of the 15th-16th centuries. spread to other European countries. All
the main types of art - painting, graphics, sculpture, architecture - have changed tremendously.
Creatively revised principles of the ancient order system were established in architecture, and new types of public buildings were formed. Painting was enriched with a linear and aerial perspective, knowledge of the anatomy and proportions of the human body. Earthly content penetrated the traditional religious themes of works of art. Increased interest in ancient mythology, stories. everyday scenes, landscape, portrait. Along with the monumental wall paintings that adorn architectural structures, a picture appeared, oil painting arose.
Art has not yet completely broken away from the craft, but the creative individuality of the artist, whose activity at that time was extremely diverse, has already taken the first place. The universal talent of the masters of the Renaissance is amazing - they often worked in the field of architecture, sculpture, painting, combined their passion for literature.
poetry and philosophy with the study of exact sciences
The concept of a creatively rich, or "Renaissance personality" subsequently became a household word.
In the art of the Renaissance, the paths of scientific and artistic comprehension of the world and man were closely intertwined. Its cognitive meaning was inextricably linked with sublime poetic beauty; in its striving for naturalness, it did not descend to petty everyday life. Art has become a universal spiritual need.
The formation of the Renaissance culture in Italy took place in economically independent cities. In the rise and flourishing of Renaissance art, the Church and the magnificent courts of uncrowned sovereigns (ruling rich families) - the largest patrons and customers of works of painting, sculpture and architecture - played an important role.
The main centers of Renaissance culture were at first the cities of Florence, Siena, Pisa, then Padua. Ferrara, Genoa. Milan and later than all, in the second half of the 15th century, was rich merchant Venice. Rome became the capital of the Italian Renaissance in the 16th century. Since that time, local art centers. except for Venice, have lost their former significance.
PROTORENESSANCE
In Italian culture of the XIII-XIV centuries. against the backdrop of still strong Byzantine and Gothic traditions, features of a new art began to appear - the future art of the Renaissance. Therefore, this period of its history was called the Proto-Renaissance (that is, it prepared the offensive of the Renaissance: from Greek"protos" - "first").
There has not been a similar transitional period in any of the European
countries. In Italy itself, proto-Renaissance art existed only
in Tuscany and Rome.
In Italian culture, the features of the old and the new were intertwined. "The last poet of the Middle Ages" and the first poet of the new era, Dante Alighieri created the Italian literary language. What Dante started was continued by other great Florentines of the 14th century - Francesco Petrarca (1304-1374), the founder of European lyric poetry, and Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375), the founder of the novel (short story) genre in world literature. The pride of the era are
architects and sculptors Niccolo and Giovanni Pisano, Arnolfodi Kam-
bio and painter Giotto di Bondone.
ARCHITECTURE
Italian architecture has long followed medieval traditions,
which was expressed mainly in the use of many Gothic motifs.
At the same time, Italian Gothic itself did not resemble northern Gothic: it gravitated towards calm large forms, even light, horizontal
articulations of architecture, wide surfaces of walls. The Church of Santa Croce, one of the largest in Florence, was begun by Arnolfo di Cambio at the end of the 13th century. (the facade was created in the 19th century). The temple is distinguished by wide spans, a single bright interior space, instead of complex Gothic vaults, it uses a wooden ceiling. In 1296 in
Florence began to build the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore. Arnolfo di Cambio wanted to crown the altar of the cathedral with a huge dome. However, after the death of the architect in 1310, the construction was delayed, it was completed only during the early Renaissance. In 1334, according to the project of Giotto, the construction of the bell tower of the cathedral, the so-called campanile, was begun - a slender rectangular tower with horizontal divisions by floor and beautiful Gothic windows, lancet arched shape
which have long been preserved in Italian architecture.
Among the most famous city palaces is the Palazzo della Signoria in Florence. It is believed that it was built by Arnolfo di Cambio. This is a heavy cube with a high tower, lined with rough stone. On the facade - windows of different sizes, an inconspicuous entrance is located on the side. The building defines the appearance of the old city center, invading the square with a harsh bulk. The mighty palace served as a symbol of Florence's independence.
SCULPTURE
Earlier than in architecture and painting, new artistic searches were outlined in sculpture, and above all in the Pisan school, the founder of which was Niccolo Pisano (about 1220 - between 1278 and 1284). His work developed under the influence of ancient tradition, he undoubtedly studied the sculptural decoration of late Roman and early Christian sarcophagi. The hexagonal marble pulpit (1260), made by him for the baptistery in Pisa, became an outstanding achievement of the Renaissance sculpture and influenced its further formation. The pulpit, made of white, pink-red and dark green marble, is a whole architectural structure, easily visible from all sides.
Niccolo Pisano used traditional plots and motifs here, but the pulpit already belongs to new era. The main achievement of the sculptor is that he managed to give volume to the forms and
expressiveness, and each image has bodily power. Pisano's images are static, majestic and impassive. The Mother of God resembles the Roman goddess Juno, an allegory of Strength in the form of a naked athlete - ancient hero Hercules.
A special place in the history of Italian sculpture of the late XIII - early XIV century. belongs to Giovanni Pisano (1245 or 1250 - after 1314). A student and assistant to Nicolò Pisano, he became much more famous master than his famous father. In the works of Giovanni there were many new and unusual things. Almost the same age as Giotto, he was the exact opposite of the wise restraint of his Florentine contemporary.
The most famous are the pulpits created by Giovanni Pisano in the Pisa Cathedral and the Church of Sant'Andrea in Pistoia, as well as statues of saints, prophets, Madonnas.
Complex multi-figure reliefs decorating the pulpit in the cathedral
The Pisas and the churches of Sant'Andrea in Pistoia are in a flurry of traffic. The figures, having lost the calmness of the images of Niccolo Pisano, seem to strive to break out of the stone. Their gestures are natural, their faces are expressive. Particularly expressive are such dramatic scenes as the Crucifixion and the Massacre of the Innocents.
EARLY REVIVAL
In the XV century. the art of Italy occupied a dominant position in the artistic life of Europe. The foundations of a humanistic secular (i.e., not ecclesiastical) culture were laid in Florence, which pushed Siena and Pisa into the background. Florence of that time was called “the flower of Italy, the rival of the glorious city of Rome. from which it sprang and whose greatness it imitates. The political power here belonged to the merchants and
artisans, a few of the richest families had a special influence on city affairs. They constantly competed with each other. This struggle ended at the end of the 14th century. victory of the Medici banking house. Its head, Cosimo de' Medici, became the unspoken ruler of Florence. To the Court of Cosimo
The Medici (and later his grandson Lorenzo, nicknamed the Magnificent) flocked writers, poets, scientists, architects and artists. A real revolution took place in architecture at that time. Extensive construction unfolded in Florence, changing the face of the city before our eyes.
ARCHITECTURE
A native of Florence was Philippe Brunelleschi (1377-1446), the founder of the Renaissance architecture of Italy, one of the founders of the scientific theory of perspective (he erected buildings based on accurate mathematical calculations). Versatile gifted, widely
humanistic education, he initially worked as a sculptor and participated (but did not win) in a competition in 1401 for best project bronze reliefs for the doors of the Florentine baptistery. Brunelleschi's early building is the dome of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence; this is an example of a brilliant plastic (spatial) and engineering solution. Brunelleschi had to block the huge span of the dome (base diameter forty-two meters) without erecting scaffolding. The architect invented an unusually complex design for his time: a light hollow dome had a double shell and a frame of eight ribs,
which were surrounded by rings. The grandiose dome, covered with dark red tiles, tied with strong white ribs and crowned with an elegant white marble skylight, solemnly soars over the city as a majestic image of Florence. The great Italian architect Leon Battista Alberti, dedicating his treatise on painting to Brunelleschi, wrote that this "great building rising to the heavens overshadows all Tuscan lands." Brunelleschi's creation is the forerunner of numerous domed temples in Italy and other European countries.
Brunelleschi initiated the creation of a domed temple on
basis of the ancient order. In 1421-1428. he built the side chapel of the Church of San Lorenzo in Florence. The architectural principles used by Brunelleschi in this building were further developed in his famous Pazzi Chapel (1429-1443) - a true pearl of the early Renaissance. Situated in the deep
narrow courtyard of the Church of Santa Croce, the chapel of the wealthy Florentine Pazzi family welcomes the incoming graceful six-column portico with a large central arched opening. According to recent archival data, the portico erected by Brunelleschi was subsequently rebuilt. However, it is difficult to assume that the new structure did not reflect the general figurative
idea of a great architect. The Pazzi chapel itself, flooded with light, is small, rectangular in plan and captivates with the beauty of proportions, the balance of parts, and the purity of lines. The planes of the pearl-gray walls seem to be lined with stripes of architectural rods made of dark gray stone, rectangles, circles, arcs of arches. The decoration of the walls is perceived as an element of architecture, giving the impression of lightness and spirituality.
In the early 30s. 15th century Brunelleschi, along with his friend,
sculptor Donatello. visited Rome. In the early stages of
birth. acquaintance of the Italian society with ancient culture
was due to the study of surviving architectural monuments antiquities and discovered manuscripts - they were collected, studied and copied. During the trip, Brunelleschi and Donatello participated in excavations, measured, examined and classified antique monuments. The influence of the Roman classics was reflected in the later large buildings of Brunelleschi - the Florentine churches of San Lorenzo (1442-1444) and Santo Spirito (begun by him in 1444; completed after his death in 1487.
Creation of a new type of city palaces, which served as a model
for public buildings of later times, became one of the main tasks of Italian architecture of the 15th century.
SCULPTURE
In the XV century. Italian sculpture flourished. She acquired
independent, independent of architecture meaning, new genres appeared in it. The practice of artistic life began to include orders from wealthy merchants and craftsmen to decorate public buildings; art competitions acquired the character of broad public events. The event that
opens a new period in the development of Italian Renaissance sculpture, it is considered that the competition held in 1401 for the manufacture of
bronzes of the second northern doors of the Florentine baptistery. Among the participants in the competition were young masters - Philippe Brunelleschi and Lorenzo Ghiberti (circa 1381-1455).
The brilliant draftsman Ghiberti won the competition. One of the most educated people of his time, the first historian of Italian art, Ghiberti, in whose work the main thing was the balance and harmony of all elements of the image, devoted his life to one type of sculpture - relief. His quest reached the pinnacle
in the manufacture of the eastern doors of the Florentine baptistery (1425-1452), which Michelangelo called the "Gates of Paradise". the ten square compositions made of gilded bronze that make them convey the depth of space in which figures, nature, and architecture merge. They are reminiscent of expressive picturesque paintings. Ghiberti's workshop has become a real school for a whole generation of artists. In his workshop, the young Donatello, the great reformer of Italian sculpture, worked as an assistant.
Donato diNiccolodiBettoBardi, who was called Donatello
(circa 1586-1466), was born in Florence in the family of a comber
wool. He worked in Florence. Siena, Rome, Padua. However, the huge fame did not change his simple way of life. It was said that the selfless Donatello hung a purse with money at the door of his workshop, and his friends and students took from the purse as much as they needed.
On the one hand, Donatello longed for the truth of life in art. On the other hand, he gave his works the features of sublime heroics. These qualities are already evident in early works ah master - statues of saints, intended for the outer niches of the facades of the Church of Or San Michele in Florence, and the Old Testament prophets of the Florentine campanile. The statues were in niches, but they immediately attracted attention with the harsh expressiveness and inner strength of the images.
Especially famous is "St. George" (1416) - a young warrior with a shield
volume in hand. He has a focused, deep look; he stands firmly on
ground with legs wide apart. In the statues of the prophets Donatello is especially
emphasized them character traits, sometimes rude, un-
painted, even ugly, but alive and natural. Donatello's prophets Jeremiah and Habakkuk are whole and spiritually rich natures. Their
strong figures are hidden by heavy folds of cloaks. Life has furrowed Avvakum's faded face with deep wrinkles;
bald, for which he was nicknamed Zuccone (Pumpkin) in Florence.
In 1430, Donatello created "David" - the first nude statue in
Italian sculpture of the Renaissance. The statue was intended for a fountain in the courtyard of the Medici Palace. The biblical shepherd, the winner of the giant Goliath, is one of the favorite images of the Renaissance. Depicting his youthful body, Donatello undoubtedly proceeded from antique samples, but reworked them in the spirit of his time. Thoughtful and calm David in a shepherd's hat shading him
face, trampling on Goliath's head with his foot and as if not conscious of the feat he had yet accomplished.
A trip to Rome with Brunelleschi greatly expanded the artistic possibilities of Donatello, his work was enriched with new images and techniques, which affected the influence of antiquity.
A new period has begun in the master's work. In 1433 he completed the marble pulpit of the Florentine cathedral. The entire field of the pulpit is occupied by a jubilant round dance of dancers putti - something like ancient cupids
and at the same time medieval angels in the form of naked boys,
sometimes winged, depicted in motion. This is a favorite motif in the sculpture of the Italian Renaissance, which then spread into
art XVII-XVIII centuries
For almost ten years, Donatello worked in Padua, the old university city, one of the centers of humanistic culture, the homeland
deeply revered in the Catholic Church of St. Anthony of Padua. For the city cathedral dedicated to St. Anthony, Donatello completed in 1446-1450. a huge sculpted altar with many statues and reliefs. The central place under the canopy was occupied by the statue of the Madonna and Child, on both sides of which there were six statues of saints. At the end of the XVI century. the altar was demolished. Only a part of it has survived to this day, and now it is difficult to imagine how it looked originally.
Four extant altar reliefs depicting the miraculous deeds of St. Anthony allow us to appreciate the unusual techniques used by the master. This is a type of flat, as if flattened
relief. Crowded scenes are presented in a single movement in a real life setting. In the background they are huge city
buildings and arcades. Through the transfer of perspective, the impression of the depth of space arises, as
in paintings.
In the last years spent in Florence, Donatello experienced a spiritual crisis, his images became more and more dramatic. He created a complex and expressive group "Judith and Holofernes" (1456-1457); statue of "Mary Magdalene" (1454-1455)
in the form of a decrepit old woman, an emaciated hermit in an animal skin; reliefs for the church of San Lorenzo, tragic in mood, already completed by his students of the workshop, and his friends and students took from the purse as much as they needed.
On the one hand, Donatello longed for the truth of life in art. On the other hand, he gave his works the features of sublime heroics.
PAINTING
A special place in early Renaissance painting belongs to Sandro Botgicelli, a contemporary of Leonardo da Vinci and the young Michelangelo.
Alessandro Filipepi, nicknamed Botticelli (1445-1510), was born in Florence. He studied painting with Filippo Lippi, attended
workshop of the famous sculptor and painter Verrocchio, where he brought together
Xia with Leonardo, who was also a student of Verrocchio.
His name became known thanks to the painting "The Adoration of the Magi"
(1476), which attracted the attention of the Medici family. In the picture
three generations of these uncrowned rulers of Florence were depicted. Botticelli began to work at the Medici court.
The exquisite art of Botticelli with elements of stylization, that is, the generalization of images using conventional techniques - simplification of form, color and volume, enjoyed great success among highly educated Florentines. In the art of Botticelli, unlike most of the masters of the early Renaissance, the personal experience of the master prevailed. Exceptionally sensitive and sincere, the artist went through a difficult and tragic path of creative search - from a poetic perception of the world in his youth to painful pessimism in adulthood.
His famous paintings mature period "Spring" (about 1477-
1478) and The Birth of Venus (1483-1484) are inspired by the poems of the outstanding humanist Angelo Poliziano, court poet of the Medici. The allegorical painting "Spring", written to decorate the Medici villa, is one of the most complex works Botticelli.
Against the backdrop of the dark greenery of a fantastic garden, flexible, slender figures appear as graceful silhouettes. The flowering meadow under their feet resembles a bright carpet. In the depths of the composition, Venus in a smart dress stands in melancholy thoughtfulness. She is surrounded by an obligatory retinue: a cupid with a bow hovers over her head, three young graces lead a round dance, a nymph runs from a grove pursued by a faun. In the foreground is Spring, or the goddess Flora, in
a wreath and a dress woven with flowers marches swiftly and so easily,
that barely touches the ground with bare feet. In the left corner is the figure of a young man, who is usually called Mercury. The rhythm of flowing lines
unites the composition into a single whole, creates a sophisticated color harmony. The artist applied a technique that was archaic for his time - the finest shading with gold of some details, among them - flowers, fruits, rays, crowns, patterns of fabrics. Individual figures and groups are delightful, especially the three dancing graces. Conquers the charm of the outlines of their figures, clothes, as if woven from air, hand movements, finger touches.
Permeated with the musical rhythm of the dance, the tremor of the lines, the image of the three graces glorifies the coming Spring, a celebration of nature and human feelings. But in the painting by Botticelli, one can feel a shade of sadness, a coldish detachment, characteristic of his art. The characters are self-absorbed, internally alone.
More directly perceived is the painting "The Birth of Venus", which is not so strongly associated with allegorical overtones. This is one of the most captivating creations of world painting. The painting depicts Venus, the goddess of love and beauty, floating on a large shell. The “boat” is driven to the shore by the god and goddess of the wind, flying, intertwined in their arms. On the shore, a nymph awaits Venus, who hurries to throw a light crimson veil woven with flowers over her shoulders. The master gilds Venus's wind-blown hair, and this gives her feminine appearance something unearthly. The appearance of a deity far from reality is also reflected in the range of cold, transparent, light colors.
In the painting of the early Renaissance, among the many faces - beautiful and almost ugly, but always significant - the images of women, girls, boys and children, belonging to the brush of Botticelli, are immediately recognizable. They are distinguished not by the classical correctness of features, not by prettiness, but by the charm of sinless purity, defenselessness, unspoken sadness. The image of Venus is the highest embodiment of this ideal. Four centuries later, people peer into her clear features and find something exciting in them.
and attractive. In the early 90s. XV century in the work of Botticelli there was a decisive turning point. He was strongly influenced by the passionate sermons of the Dominican monk Savonarola, who denounced the papacy, the aristocracy, the rich and humanistic culture.
HIGH REVIVAL
The High Renaissance, which gave humanity such great masters as Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo, Giorgione, Titian, Bramante, covers a relatively short period - from the end of the 15th century. until the end of the second decade of the 16th century. Only in Venice the flourishing of art continued until the middle of the century.
Fundamental shifts associated with decisive events in world history, the successes of advanced scientific thought, have infinitely expanded people's ideas about the world - not only about the earth, but also about the Cosmos. The perception of the world and the human personality seemed to be enlarged; V artistic creativity this was reflected not only in the majestic scale of architectural structures, monuments, solemn fresco cycles and paintings, but also in their content, the expressiveness of images. The pictorial language, which, according to the definition of some researchers, in the early Renaissance could seem too "talkative", became generalized and restrained. The art of the High Renaissance is a lively and complex artistic process with dazzlingly bright rises and subsequent crises.
LEONARDO DA VINCI
In the history of mankind it is not easy to find another equally brilliant
personality as the founder of the art of the High Renaissance Leonardo
da Vinci (1452-1519). The comprehensive nature of the activities of this great artist and scientist became clear only when the scattered manuscripts from his heritage were examined. Colossal literature is devoted to Leonardo. in the most detailed way studied his life. Nevertheless, much in his work remains mysterious and continues to excite the minds of people.
Among his early works is the painting "Madonna with a Flower" (1472). Unlike the masters of the XV century. Leonardo refused narrative, the use of details that distract the attention of the viewer, saturated with images of the background. The picture is perceived as a simple, artless scene of the joyful motherhood of young Mary. Two large figures fill the entire space of the picture, only outside the window in the dark wall you can see a clear cold blue sky. A specific moment is captured: the mother, herself still an affectionate and lively girl, holds out a flower to her child, smiling, and watches how a serious kid carefully examines an unfamiliar object. The flower links both figures together.
Donatello And Verrocchio's monument was nicknamed the Great Colossus.
The paintings of Leonardo of the Milan period have survived to our time. The first altarpiece of the High Renaissance was Madonna in the Grotto (1483-1494). The painter departed from the traditions of the 15th century, in whose religious paintings solemn stiffness prevailed. There are few figures in Leonardo’s altarpiece: the feminine Mary, the Christ Child blessing little John the Baptist, and a kneeling angel, as if looking out of the picture. The images are perfectly beautiful, naturally connected with their environment. This is a kind of grotto among dark basalt rocks with a gap in the depths - a landscape typical of Leonardo: in general, fantastically mysterious, but in particular - in the image of each plant, each flower among dense grass - made with an accurate knowledge of natural forms. Figures and faces are shrouded in an airy haze, giving them a special softness. The Italians called this technique Leonardo sfumato.
In Milan, apparently, the master created the canvas "Madonna and Child" ("Madonna Litta"). Here, unlike the Madonna with a Flower, he
strove for greater generalization and ideality of the image. It depicts not a certain moment, but a certain long-term state of calm joy, in which the young woman is immersed. a beautiful woman breastfeeding baby. The clarity of the balanced composition with two symmetrically located windows is expressive, between which a lively and flexible silhouette of a female half-figure is inscribed. Cold clear light illuminates her thin, softly sculpted face and a light, barely perceptible smile. The picture is painted in tempera, giving sonority to the tones of Mary's blue cloak and red dress. The fluffy dark golden curly hair of the Infant is amazingly written, his attentive gaze directed at the viewer is not childishly serious.
A different, dramatic mood distinguishes the monumental painting of Leonardo " The Last Supper", performed by him in 1495-1497. commissioned by Lodovico Moro for the refectory church of Santa Mariadella Grazie in Milan. The fate of this famous work of Leonardo is tragic. More during the life of the master, the paint began to crumble. In the HUL a door was broken in the wall of the refectory, which destroyed part of the composition, and in the 18th century. The building was turned into a hay store. Inept restorations caused great damage to the fresco. IN
In 1908, work was carried out to clear and strengthen the mural.
During World War II, the ceiling and south wall of the refectory were destroyed by a bomb. The restoration undertaken in 1945 saved the painting from further destruction, the remains of Leonardo's painting were identified and secured. However, only the most general idea can now be formed about the great creation of the master.
It is impossible to imagine that Leonardo da Vinci could live and create in another era. And yet his personality transcended its time, rose above it. The work of Leonardo before Vinci is inexhaustible. The scale and uniqueness of his talent can be judged by the master's drawings, which occupy one of the places of honor in the history of world art. With drawings by Leonardo da Vinci, sketches, sketches, diagrams, not only manuscripts devoted to the exact sciences, but also works on the theory of art are inextricably linked.
The art of Leonardo da Vinci, his scientific and theoretical research, the uniqueness of his personality have passed through the entire history of world culture and had a huge impact on it.
The idea of sublime beauty and harmony is associated with the work of Raphael (1483-1520) in the history of world art.
It is generally accepted that in the constellation masters of genius High Renaissance, in which Leonardo personified intellect, and Michelangelo - power, it was Raphael who was the main bearer of harmony. Of course, to one degree or another, each of them possessed all these qualities. There is no doubt, however, that the relentless striving for a bright, perfect beginning permeates all of Raphael's work and constitutes its inner meaning.
Rafael initially studied in Urbino with his father, then with local
the famous painter Timoteo Vite. In 1500, he moved to Perugia, the capital of Umbria, to continue his education in the workshop of the famous
th painter, head of the Umbrian school Pietro Perugino. The young master quickly surpassed his teacher.
Raphael's favorite image is the Madonna and Child. In the history of art, the "Sistine Madonna" is an image of perfect beauty. This
a large altar picture depicts not just the Divine Mother
with the Divine Infant, and the miracle of the appearance of the Heavenly Queen,
soup to the people of his Son as an atoning sacrifice. Framed by green
On bright clouds stands Mary with the Child in her arms. The gaze of Her dark, gleamless eyes is directed past and, as it were, through the viewer. That look is available. what is hidden from others. In the image of Christ, a large beautiful child, something is guessed that is not childishly tense and visionary. Here the artist has achieved a rare dynamic balance: apparent clear simplicity, features of abstract ideality, the divinity of a miracle and the real weight of forms are intertwined, complement and enrich each other.
friend. To the left of the Madonna, Pope Sixtus IV in prayer tenderness
contemplates a miracle. Saint Barbara, reverently lowering her gaze, who, like Mary, belongs to heaven, easily soars in the clouds. Two angels, leaning on the parapet, look up and return the viewer's attention to the central image.
Michelangelo
Michelangelo Bounarroti (1475-1564) - the greatest master of the High Renaissance, who created outstanding works of sculpture, painting, architecture. Michelangelo executed a colossal marble statue of David. The statue reaches five and a half meters in height. She personifies the limitless power of man. David is just preparing to strike the enemy with a stone fired from a sling, but it is already felt that this future a conqueror, full of consciousness of his physical and spiritual strength. The hero's face expresses an unshakable will.
Made by order of the Florentine Republic, the statue was installed at the entrance to Talazzo Vskchio. The opening of the monument in 1504 turned into a national celebration. "David" decorated the square for more than three and a half centuries. In 1873, the monument was installed in the Gallery of the Academy of Fine Arts in Florence. In the old place where Michelangelo himself placed the statue, there is now a marble copy.
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF CULTURE
THE AGE OF THE RENAISSANCE
Thus, in an effort to learn the culture of the Renaissance, the secrets of its art, it is necessary to analyze the traditions not only of Italy, but also of other Western countries, for only such an association, bound by the same ideas and views, will give a complete picture of the Renaissance.
The revolutionary significance of the Renaissance is important for all subsequent times, since it was during this period that the main humanistic views were laid, the development of which is relevant for all mankind today.
In the climax periods of the development of culture, an example of which is the Renaissance, as a rule, deep contradictions are revealed, overcoming which new traditions and techniques arise. And next to the most revolutionary demands in the field of thought and will, which led to the most daring postulates in the field of morality, science and art, next to the boundless audacity in destroying the old and creating the new, sometimes giving the impression of something very modern, the survivals of old views.
And the most creative, productive thoughts are tested precisely in the improvement and development of old ideas.
The Renaissance ushered in an era of a completely new man in the history of European civilization. This was reflected primarily in the worldview, beliefs, in all areas of the individual's activity, as well as in the sphere of her feelings and emotions. In this era, will and action went together, old and new, uniting, gave rise to brilliant ideas, images and works; the perfection of the creativity of an individual was as significant as the activities of schools and periods. Humanist thinkers, people of art set themselves heroic tasks and successfully solved them. Those who saw the solution of all problems in the improvement of the ideas of social order, went to death and deprivation for the sake of the common good of mankind and created the preconditions for the grandiose activity of subsequent generations.
In the field of philosophy and sciences (both humanitarian and mathematical) there was a significant leap in development, characterized by humanistic ideas, a new look at man and his capabilities.
In the field of art, the tasks of a person were bequeathed to the future in a dilapidated form, since the basic techniques and principles are clear to us, but how the overall impression of a work is achieved is a mystery, especially in the artistic depiction of a person, his beauty and sublimity.
It was this era that gave mankind a huge number of comprehensive, titanic, mysterious personalities - Petrarch, Shakespeare, Giotto, Raphael, Titian, Michelangelo, centuries are needed to understand their creativity and human personality.
The anthropocentrism of the Renaissance manifests itself in new semantic coloring microcosmicity - that a person turns in the macrocosm into one of the most alive And active forces. Therefore, do not forget that the Renaissance is not only the era of Leonardo and Michelangelo, but also the era Paracelsus(1493-1541) and Nostradamus (1503-1566).
Conclusion
Main result and main conquest Renaissance - assertion of an active human personality, its optimistic potential and creativity, which led to many great achievements of mankind, conveniences, comfort and improved quality of life - by the end of the 15th century. does not fit well with traditional foundations medieval culture and life, threatens to turn into a sharp conflict with it and into a complete break with the medieval whole.
All this further exacerbated the contradictions of the Renaissance, turning them into an acute conflict both within the Renaissance personality itself and between the cultural layers of the era, but at the same time, the Renaissance was the impetus for the creation of a new culture - the culture of the New Age.
